The History of Russia (Volume II: 1440 - 1835)

[Stuckenschmidt]

Bohemian Succession War
(1545 - 1547)​

On 16th November 1544 King Jiri of Bohemia died without Heirs, causing a succession crisis. While the Bohemian nobility favored one of their own as new King, Emperor Maximilian I wanted a member of the Habsburg dynasty on the throne in order to increase control over one of the seven Electors. Finally the Polish-Lithuanian King August IV von Mecklenburg supported the claim of his nephew Albert.

Eventually the Bohemian elite elected one of its leaders, Vaclav V Podebrad, as new King. In the aftermath, August IV raised claims on Bohemian territory and declared war on Vaclav in early 1545. While Poland-Lithuania was supported by Moldavia, Bohemia was backed by Istvan VI, King of Hungary, and the Emperor Maximilian I.

Tsar Vasily III closely followed the events in the west. Poland-Lithuania was his most powerful rival and further conquests at the expense of Bohemia might have changed the already fragile balance of power in Poland`s favor. So Vasily declared war on Poland-Lithuania too.

Faced with a two-front war, Poland-Lithuania was immediately outnumbered. The combined Bohemian-Austrian forces marched into Polish core territories, while Hungary eliminated the Moldavian force. In the east, the Russian armies crossed the borders and besieged the important fortresses of Bryansk and Lipetsk, which fell in 1546 and 1547. Also in 1547, the fortress of Poltava was conquered.

In the outskirts of Poltava, the decisive battle was fought on 4th September 1547. Although the Polish-Lithuanian army consisted of only roughly 40.000 soldiers compared to roughly 70.000 Russians, they almost won the battle, until suddenly the Polish right flank collapsed under a final massive Russian infantry assault. Poltava proved the already important status of firearms and cannons on the battlefield, with which the Polish army was better equipped. The Russian force had inferior equipment, but could make up for it by superior numbers.

-

Fig. 17 + 18: Poland-Lithuania before and after the Bohemian Succession War​

After Poltava, the Polish army had ceased to exist as efficient fighting force and August IV had to call for negotiations. In the Treaty of Buda of 1547 he had to cede vast territories to his enemies. Bohemia received Polish territories reaching from Poznan to Krakow, Hungary the west of Moldavia. Eventually Russia gained Vitebsk and the fortress of Lipetsk as well as minor territories in the south.

At the end of the day, the Bohemian Succession War was a huge failure for Poland and caused the long-term enmity between Poland and Russia.

 

[Idhrendur]

A smaller victory for now, but it's likely the beginning of the end for them.

 

[Stuckenschmidt]

As in reality it will take a huge amount of time to push them back, but so far I am pretty confident, that Mother Russia will prevail.

 

[Stuckenschmidt]

Decline of the Uzbek Khanate
(1543 - 1556)​

When Tamerlan (also known as Timur) died in 1405, he had conquered an Empire that reached from today`s Iraq in the west deep into Central Asia in the East. His first successors were able to retain all of these holdings. But the downfall of the Timurid Empire began after the death of Khan Shah Rukh in 1447. Within the next century almost all parts of the Empire had either fallen to rivaling dynasties, who established new realms (Persia; Afghanistan), or were conquered during the southern expansion of the Uzbek Khanate.

In 1540, the Uzbek Khanate was the dominating power in Central Asia and western Siberia, when the realm even reached to Mongolia in the east. The erosion of this position began in 1543, when Khan Shadi I Janid faced an usurpation attempt by his Nephew Vali, which resulted in a long civil war that lasted until 1548, when Vali died in battle.

For reasons unknown, the neighbors of the Uzbek did not decide to unite their efforts before the civil war was over, but in 1549 the Timurid and Nogai Khanates as well as the Sultanate of Yarkand declared war on the Uzbek Khanate.

For the next two years, the war raged in the southern parts of the Uzbek Khanate. Although the attackers had the initiative, they could not decisively defeat the Uzbek. This changed as of 1551. After having won the Bohemian Succession War and restored order in the recently acquired territories, Vasily III wanted to seize the opportunity to expand further into Siberia and declared war on the Uzbek Khanate.

Historians assume, that the Russian army sent into the Khanate consisted of 25.000 to 30.000 soldiers. And its appearance immediately turned the tide to the disadvantage of the Uzbek. Between 1553 and 1556 Shadi I was forced to make peace with his enemies and cede all the territories the Khanate had gained during the previous century and also some of its core territories.

Fig. 19: Central Asia / Western Siberia in 1556
​

In the south, the Timurid and Nogai Khanates made gains and reestablished themselves as medium-sized realms in Central Asia again. In the north, Russia could advance its borders to the Tobol and Ob river and gained a strong foothold in Siberia. The most gains were made by the Sultanate Yarkand. After the war, it became the dominant power in eastern Central Asia and a serious rival for the Chinese Ming Empire.

 

[alscon]

Time to advance in the Steppes and head to Cathay!

 

[Stuckenschmidt]

Army Reform in the mid 16th Century​

The introduction of the Arquebus on the battlefield revolutionized warfare in the late 15th Century. But despite its severe impact, this new weapon had also drawbacks. Consequently the new technology underwent further developments. In the first half of the 16th Century the successor of the Arquebus, the Musket, was introduced and would become the new standard infantry firearm for the next three centuries.

The basic improvement of the Musket over the Arquebus was its longer barrel, which provided a higher muzzle velocity and thus increased range and penetration. The drawback of the weapon remained its matchlock, which made it very vulnerable to wind or rain and still included the danger to operate with a glowing fuse next to gunpowder.

Nevertheless the new weapon replaced its predecessor. It is believed, that the Musket was introduced in Russia in the late 1540s and was already used during the Uzbek campaign. Within the next ten years, the Arquebus completely disappeared. Additionally the share of soldiers with firearms in Russian infantry formations significantly increased, emphasizing the importance of the new technology.

Eventually, Vasily III made further provisions to rise the efficiency of the national supply system, increasing the amount of depots and hence improving the amount of troops that could be supplied at any given time, especially in the southern parts of the realm. All these developments were necessary improvements with regard to the upcoming conflicts with Poland-Lithuania.

 

[Stuckenschmidt]

The Manychian War
(1559 - 1561)​

In 1559, Vasily III declared war on Poland due to his claims on the region of Manych. Manych itself was a rather meaningless province to the south of the lower Don and although it did belong to the territories Vasily claimed to be Russian, it served as justification to wage a war versus Poland, while it also had to fight a simultaneous conflict with the Ottoman Empire.

The war was considerably short and lacked noticeable events, since it was a series of sieges, with the fortresses of Bryansk and Poltava again being occupied. The decisive moment was the battle of Braslaw in the north of Lithuania on 2nd October 1561, where a Polish force of roughly 23.000 soldiers was defeated by a superior Russian army of about 40.000 soldiers.

After Poland agreed to sign a peace, Manych became Russian. More important, as well for the result as the alleged reasons to begin this conflict in the first place, was, that Russia could advance its borders near its core territories and gain the important city of Smolensk.

 

[Stuckenschmidt]

The Bessarabian War
(1558 - 1564)​

In 1450, after the Smuta Period, the Ottoman dynasty had taken control of the largest parts of the former Sami Empire, especially the West and northern Center of Anatolia and the southern Balkan. Within the next 100 years the realm became the Ottoman Empire, after having conquered the whole Mamluk Sultanate as well as most of the Arabian Peninsula.

During the 1550s, Padishah Selim I turned his attention toward Europe again. The Principality of Wallachia, a vassal of the Ottoman for a long time, had gained their independence again and tried to play off Hungary against the Ottoman Empire in order to secure its own survival. The even smaller Principality of Moldavia had lost territory to Hungary and, as a result, tightened its ties to Poland.

In 1558 Selim I decided to strengthen his position on the Balkan and declared war on Poland. Subsequently he was also at war with Poland`s allies Lithuania and Moldavia. The first year of the conflict saw some setbacks for the Ottomans, who were pushed back to Edirne. But in 1559 Russia declared war on Poland-Lithuania too. During the next two years as well Russia as the Ottomans could gain ground, until Russia made peace with Poland again in 1561.

Fig. 20: The Black Sea in 1564
​

During the next almost three years, the war raged in Moldavia and Podolia without a decisive battle. In 1564, a small Ottoman army made landfall on the Crimea and occupied the Peninsula. Poland, strategically in the defensive and being exhausted after six years of warfare on its own soil, had to make peace. The Ottoman Empire gained the Moldavian province of Akkerman with the important fortress of Kilia and the Crimean province of Theodoro. Having gained two important ports, the control of the Ottoman Empire over the Black Sea had significantly increased.

 

[Stuckenschmidt]

Excursus II: Religious Tensions from Örebro to Augsburg
(1534 - 1565)​

In 1534 the Council of Örebro concluded, that measures had to be taken to contain the spread of the Lutheran and Reformed faiths by increasing the efforts to proselytize and re-catholicize the people in the affected regions. The results during the next three decades were rather mixed. Large territories in northern Germany were again part of the Catholic community and Protestantism had been eliminated in northern Italy. On the other hand the Reformed faith had spread to Brabant and Savoie and small communities within Hungary, Poland and Sweden had adopted the new Lutheran Religion.

These developments did not benefit the Emperor. In the early 1560s the majority of Electors was still either Lutheran (Bohemia, Brandenburg, Saxony) or Reformed (Verden). Within this situation, it became impossible for the Emperor to achieve any goals of his agenda to strengthen his position in the Holy Roman Empire, with the Reichsreform of 1511 being the only achievement in this direction.

The rising tensions due to the Emperor`s claim to be the head of an Imperial Government and the protestant Princes` desire for non-intervention of the Emperor led to the formation of two power blocs. In 1559, the Evangelical Union (also known as Union of Wismar) established itself as Alliance of Protestant realms, in which the Danish King (as Duke of Holstein also member of the Empire) had the leading role. As a reaction, Emperor Günther I formed the Catholic League in 1560.

Fig. 21: Religious Map of Europe in 1565
(Yellow = Catholic; Ochre = Orthodox; Light Blue = Reformed; Dark Blue = Lutheran)​

The situation escalated during the Imperial Diet of 1564 in Augsburg. A debate over the introduction of an Imperial tax led to the situation, that the head of the Diet ordered the two delegates from Pommerania to be arrested. During the following quarrel, Adam von Winstett, envoy of the Duke of Mecklenburg, was stabbed to death by the Austrian envoy Johann Ludwig von Trautmannsdorf. In the aftermath, Trautmannsdorf was not arrested and could leave the city unchallenged. The Protestant envoys abandoned the Diet shortly later.

In the aftermath, the leaders of the Union made demands toward the Emperor for the extradition of Trautmannsdorf, free practice of Religion for all Imperial Estates and a guarantee, that the Emperor would abstain from all claims to interfere into the internal affairs of any state within the Empire. Günther I rejected all three demands.

The stage was set for a major religious war and in early 1565 the Union (Denmark, Sweden, Bohemia, Great Britain) declared war on the League (Austria, Hungary, Cologne, Aragon).

 

[Stuckenschmidt]

The AI made me a huge present yesterday, when Poland and Lithuania became one Polish state. Before that they had a combined unit cap of 82 compared to my 88. Now it dropped to roughly 60.

EDIT:

But the Ottomans have frightening 120 already.

 

[Stuckenschmidt]

Death of Vasily III
(1571)​

On 19th November 1571 Vasily III died age 65 after a reign of 30 years.

Contrary to his father, Vasily`s policy had a strong focus on expansion. In the east, he began with the exploration and occupation of Siberia. During his reign, the Russian eastern border advanced between 150 and 350 miles from the Ural Mountains to the Tobol-Irtysh-Ob rivers. In the west, the conflict between Russia and Poland-Lithuania began. During two wars Vasily could gain the large cities of Vitebsk and Smolensk as well as other territories in the south. It is believed, that these gains tipped the power balance in Russia`s favor and were an important factor for the unification of Poland and Lithuania into one country in 1569.

Fig. 22: Russia in 1571​

The main topic of his domestic agenda was to decrease the influence of the nobility and establish a more centralized administration. An important measure was the abolishment of the Mestnichestvo in 1565. The Mestnichestvo was introduced in the mid 15th Century, when the position of the Grand Prince toward the Boyars was much weaker than 150 years later. With the abolishment of this system, important offices within the administration and army were filled with people based on their qualification instead of their seniority within the nobility.

A more disputed and probably less successful measure was the introduction of the Oprichnina in 1558. While the end of the Mestnichestvo meant less power of the nobility via reform, the Oprichniki did strive to achieve this by repression and expropriation. Boyars, which were viewed as "dangerous" to the authority of the throne were deprived of their estates and sometimes even executed. These old families were replaced by social climbers, who owed their ascension to Vasily. It is still a debated fact, whether the benefits of the Oprichniki outweighed the damage done to the society or not.

Besides these measures, Vasily also improved the administration of his realm by appointing Governors for the new states of Kama and Perm, significantly increasing the tax revenue from these parts of the realm. Other measures within the army structure seemed to have reduced the corruption and mismanagement, leading to lower costs for the army`s maintenance.

When Vasily died, his son became Tsar Ivan V at the age of 36 years.

 

[Stuckenschmidt]

Accession of Pskov
(1573)​

The Republic of Pskov was established around 1420 during the Smuta and the collapse of the Kingdom of Rus. Contrary to the Republic of Novgorod, which could gather vast territories in the north during this period, Pskov remained a small entity east and south of Lake Peipus and trapped between three large neighbors (Novgorod, Lithuania, Livonian Order).

Hence it began to tighten its ties with the Grand Principality of Muscovy and already in the 1440s it was one of Muscovy`s vassal states. During the next more than 100 years it remained a loyal ally and there are several sources, that the army of Pskov supported the Muscovite and later Russian forces on the battlefield.

During this time, the Grand Principality expanded its territory and as of 1471 Muscovy and Pskov shared a common border. The larger Muscovy grew, the more pressured Pskov became to be part of it. This issue became even more pressing due to the War of the Evangelical Union in the Holy Roman Empire and its results in the Baltic, which opened opportunities for Russian expansion toward the Baltic Sea.

Eventually the Republic agreed to give up its independence and become part of the Russian Empire as of 2nd July 1573.

 

[Idhrendur]

Beyond pushing east, you've gotta grab Danish Finland sometime. As well as eating Poland.

 

[Stuckenschmidt]

Beyond pushing east, you've gotta grab Danish Finland sometime. As well as eating Poland.

I guess you will like the next update for the general direction.

 

[Stuckenschmidt]

Excursus III: War of the Evangelical Union
(1565 - 1573)​

The War of the Evangelical Union, also known as the Eight Years War, was triggered in the aftermath of the murder of a Protestant envoy during the Imperial Diet in Augsburg 1564. But the deeper reasons were the religious split of the Holy Roman Empire and the opposite interests of the Emperor and the Princes concerning the design of an Imperial administration.

In 1565 the Evangelical Union declared war on the Catholic League. From the beginning the Union had the initiative and tried to push into the heartland of the League, Cologne and Austria. The League, on the other hand, tried to execute a delaying strategy, trying to break out single members of the Protestant Alliance.

In the end, the war was a disaster for the League, with their territories devastated after years of warfare and plundering. In late 1572, Emperor Günther I realized, that further resistance was futile and agreed to peace negotiations in the Westphalian city of Münster, which had been spared from destruction during the war.

But in fact the Peace of Westphalia, that was signed in mid 1573, was an unconditional surrender by the Catholic League. Emperor Günther I was deposed and replaced by the Bohemian King Karel VI. The Lutheran faith became the official Religion of the Empire and all Electors had to be Lutheran too, meaning that four Electors were removed and replaced with Magdeburg, Oldenburg, Utrecht and Lübeck.

Fig. 23: The Baltic in 1573​

The war had also influenced the Baltic, since the Livonian Order had entered the conflict as part of the Catholic League. But already in 1568 the army of the Order was scattered and large parts of the realm occupied by Danish forces. So the Order surrendered to Denmark. Part of the conditions was to break the Alliance with Russia and to found the Duchy of Livonia, which consisted of the eastern half of the Order`s territory.

 

[Stuckenschmidt]

I hate the church.

 

[Stuckenschmidt]

Rise and Fall of Livonia
(1568 - 1574)​

Not a lot is known about the life of Kaupo Luks prior to 1568. According to the most popular theories he was either offspring of impoverished Livonian gentry or illegitimate son of a high-ranking noble of the Livonian Order of German descent. Nevertheless he became the ruler of one of the most short-lived realms in history: The Duchy of Livonia.

As a result of the participation of the Livonian Order in the Eight Years War and its surrender to Denmark, the Order had to found the Duchy of Livonia, which consisted of the Order`s holdings east of the Gulf of Riga. The Danish intentions have been much debated, since it had nothing to gain from alienating the Order from Russia and splitting it in two, making it an easy prey for the more powerful neighbors.

Anyway Tsar Ivan V seized the opportunity and declared war on Duke Kaupo I. The small army of the Duchy was easily defeated by the superior Russian forces. Within the next months the fortresses of Dorpat and Dünaburg were taken. The next step would have been to march west toward the Gulf of Riga and occupy the small port of Salismünde (today: Salicgriva).

Fig. 24: The Baltic in late 1574​

But Archbishop Johann VII of Riga had mobilized his forces and advanced northward, occupying the province before the Russian armies had seized the two major cities in the west, thus severely increasing his territories. The Duchy of Livonia was gone after just five years of existence and Kaupo Luks fell into oblivion again. Although Russia had gained more territory in the Baltic, it still lacked its own access to the Sea.

 

[Stuckenschmidt]

As you might have imagined already, Riga just got the top-spot on my list of "Countries that should not exist anymore"

 

[Stuckenschmidt]

Baltic War
(1578 - 1582)​

In 1186 the Bishopric of Livonia was established in Üxküll, but was renamed to Bishopric of Riga in 1202 after moving to that city. In 1255 it was elevated to an Archbishopric. During the Smuta it could expand its influence beyond the city borders and control the surrounding area with the Livonian Order supporting the small realm as protecting power for the next roughly 150 years.

In 1574, when the young state of Livonia was about to be annexed by the Russian Empire, Archbishop Johann VII decided to expand northward and seize all the coastal areas of the moribund Livonian realm. This proved to be a strategic mistake, since Tsar Ivan V had attacked Livonia in order to get an access to the sea for his still landlocked Empire.

Just four years later, Ivan declared war on Riga. The Archbishopric had the Livonian Order as well as the former Hanseatic Cities of Hamburg and Bremen on its side. Although the combined armies of this Alliance were inferior to the Russian army, it could mobilize a force, which Russia still lacked. A large fleet.

When the Russian armies crossed the borders in 1578, the allied armies of Riga and Livonia were destroyed rather fast in two small battles. But the next step was to seize the fortified cities of Riga and Reval. Although the Russian forces could block the landside of the cities, they could still be supplied by sea. This resulted in long and exhausting sieges. It took three years and a massive use of Russian siege artillery to wear down the defenses of all fortified places around the Gulf of Riga, Eventually the Archbishop surrendered in early 1582 and its former realm was seized by Russia.

After more than a century of expansion, Russia finally owned a major port at the coast of the Baltic Sea.

 

[Stuckenschmidt]

War of Swedish Secession
(1583 - 1589)​

On 17th June 1397 a total of 67 nobles from all Scandinavia signed the Treaty of Kalmar. Denmark, Norway and Sweden were to be ruled by one Monarch, but governed separately by their respective Privy Councils. Although the Councils never ratified the Treaty, the Personal Union under the respective Danish Monarch came into effect and affected Nordic policy for the next almost 200 years.

While the relation between Norway and Denmark was amicable, the Swedish Aristocracy was more reluctant throughout the whole period toward the Personal Union. This dissent became more important as of the early 16th Century, when Norway joined the Kingdom of Denmark and ceased to exist as separate country. Since Denmark also owned Karelia since the Treaty of Viborg of 1454, Sweden was now surrounded by Danish holdings.

More tensions evolved with the Reformation. While the Danish King soon converted to the Lutheran faith, as well the Swedish population as the Aristocracy remained Catholic. The situation worsened, when Danish missionaries tried to convert the population in southern Sweden, leading to the Convention of Stockholm of 1570, in which the Swedish Privy Council determined, that the official religion was the Catholic faith and all Lutherans had to either convert or leave the country.

During the following years, there were violent Lutheran uprisings in Gotaland, which were suppressed by the Swedish army, and the relations between Denmark and Sweden reached a low. Within the Swedish Aristocracy the call for Independence and the end of the Kalmar Union became louder. In 1582 the Privy Council wrote a letter to Ivan V, requesting support in case of a war between Sweden and Denmark. Ivan`s reply, in which he confirms military and financial support, can still be seen in the Swedish National Archives today. On 21st February 1583 the Privy Council proclaimed Karl VIII Johann Oxhufvud as Swedish King and declared war on Denmark.

Most Historians divide the War of Swedish Secession into three phases. During the first one from 1583 to 1585, the Danish forces had the initiative. The Swedish army suffered a major defeat and the Russian forces were busy to occupy the Danish holdings in Karelia and defeat smaller armies from Denmark and its allies Brandenburg and Bremen. In 1585 large parts of Sweden were occupied and the Swedish army operated in Finland. Eventually the Russian forces were free to advance on Swedish territory too. On 11th August 1585 the battle of Abo in southwest Finland was fought, where the allied Russian-Swedish army gained a victory over the Danish force.

Fig. 25: Scandinavia after the Treaty of Malmö​

During the second phase from 1585 to 1587, all previously lost Swedish territory was liberated and the focus of operations shifted to southern Sweden and Norway. Denmark mobilized a new army of roughly 45.000 soldiers and occupied places in Gotaland until the battle of Skara on 19th July 1587. An Alliance of about 30.000 Swedes and 50.000 Russians defeated the Danes, who lost about 50 percent of its force.

The third and final phase lasted from 1587 to early 1589. After Skara, the Danes were not able to operate in Sweden again and retreated to the Danish mainland.
In the meantime Skane and large parts of Norway were occupied. In 1588 Bremen signed a separate peace with Sweden and left the war. Denmark and Brandenburg were outnumbered and exhausted. Peace negotiations began and on 12th January 1589 the Treaty of Malmö was signed.

The Treaty acknowledged Swedish Independence as well as territorial gains, since large parts of Norway were now Swedish. The Russian Empire, which had contributed large sums in Subsidies and tens of thousands of soldiers, on the other hand gained nothing in terms of annexed territories. Nevertheless Historians assume, that Ivan V was satisfied. The power bloc Denmark-Sweden had been split in two and, for the time being, Sweden was a powerful Ally in the north. Russia had become the dominating power in East Europe, willing and able to influence politics and decide wars on a large scale.