Chapter Nine
Wherein the War continues, concludes
Throughout the war, Madras served only as a lookout station, monitoring the comings-and-goings of the Spanish Armada. It had been given no special consideration in war planning. The India Army based there was not reinforced, nor the fleet of nine warships. It was not, however, considered to be in danger, due to Fort St. George and garrison of 3,000 men. On June 7th, 1667, forces there saw their first action. It would not be their last.
For the first time, a flotilla small enough to be defeated by the Red Squadron appeared off the Coromandel coast. The four ships-of-the-line and five frigates of that squadron fell upon a Portuguese unit of three frigates. All of the Lusitanian ships were sunk, and their admiral, Simão Gonçalves, captured.
Gonçalves was an explorer by specialty. His presence on the flotilla could mean only one thing: it was a scouting party. Though the reason Portugal, the lesser partner in the Iberian Union, was reconnoitering Madras would not be evident for some time.
Leaving port, the Red Squadron gathered useful intelligence that was simply beyond the lookouts on Madras’ coast. Portugal was maintaining a significant naval presence on their colony Ceylon. This presence precluded any offensive action on the part of the India Army or Red Squadron, which returned to port.
Though the Red Squadron’s adventure was not grand, June was an exciting month in other theaters. The Colonial Army landed at Seminole. Luso-Spanish armies won some sieges in southwestern France, but the French presence there was still strong. In the Mediterranean, the espionage campaign showed more promise, yet still ended in failure, while the Ottoman was able to reverse losses in North Africa and move into Spanish territory.
A Junesong of many verses
In July, the Colonial Army embarked for more coastal raiding. The transport fleet, accompanied as always by White Squadron, sailed to the Gulf of Darien. Even from the sea, the massive Army of Guatemala could be seen marching north on the narrow isthmus.
They were obviously purposed to lifting English occupations, and retaking English colonial provinces. Fairfax and the Colonial Army landed behind them. Their goal was the capture of the north coast of South America.
Braddock was quite pleased with news of these developments, reminiscent as they were of his victory over Sweden. His thoughts on the matter were explored in some detail in his only published work,
English War-making.
“Illustration of the English principles of warfare in practice can be most readily seen in the Baltic campaign of England’s war against the Swedish Empire, again later in the Caribbean campaign against the Spanish Empire. In both cases, a sea-mobile army was able to make gains against a defending force several times its number. The principle: be where your enemy is not; made practical by supremely capable soldiers, sailors, and commanders. To subdue the enemy without battle is the paramount skill of English war-making.” (Braddock 96)
Of course, this was a bit of self-aggrandizement. Still, his points remain valid. The Baltic and Caribbean campaigns were alike, and both practiced principles of warfare that would define English strategy.
In mid-August, while the Colonial Army marched along the South American coast, the Spanish sent an offer of peace, demanding concessions from the Anglo-French alliance.
They were emboldened by their captured territory in France, but the war was still not in their favor. France had captured more territory than she lost, and her armies had yet to be defeated.
For these reasons, the peace of August 1667 came as a shock.
The Battle of France, ended
The Spanish, being refused by the Commonwealth which led the alliance, were able to force terms from France separately. Somewhat strangely, these terms were less extreme than those Spain presented to England a few weeks before, despite the fact their only leverage was French land.
Regardless, the Kingdom of France was diminished. With the loss of Pegu, their budding Asian empire was reduced by a third. Closer to home, the trans-Pyrenean situation had reversed. Where once a French-owned Girona created a Spanish exclave, now a Spanish-owned Girona created a French.
The Commonwealth of England now stood alone against the most powerful empire in the world, though the French continued to subsidize their war effort.
This was a dire turn of events to be sure, but Braddock took pains to prevent panic. In an address to Parliament, he offered a sober, educated assessment of the war. The defeat of France did nothing to change the facts on the ground in the Caribbean. The war would continue apace, the Lord Protector assured the nation.
For much of Fall 1667, it did. Until, on October 15th, a large Portuguese fleet appeared offshore Madras, carrying an invasion army.
Hastily, the Governor of Madras commissioned a rather young man named Oliver Dampier to general the India Army. Dampier had no prior military experience. His chief and perhaps only qualification was the college education which left him versed with Caesar’s
Commentaries on the Gallic War.
His mettle was tested immediately. The Portuguese army was ashore by the 26th of October. The first land battle of the war thus began. General Dampier forced the Portuguese back to sea, proving himself deserving of his rank.
The news was well-received in London. Braddock lauded Dampier, saying: “A newcomer to the field of battle proves himself adept. It is the story of Cromwell, of Blake, of Dampier.” Truthfully the man was by no means on their level, but Braddock was overjoyed to have a victory to help ease the tensions in the capital.
Half a world away, the Colonial Army continued its march, capturing Maracaibo and forcing two Spanish ships into Hudson’s waiting lines of battle.
This unassuming engagement was the last sea battle of the Caribbean
A month after the first Battle of Madras, the Portuguese were at it again. The wounded, demoralized regiments had hardly been back at sea when they were ordered again to wade ashore.
This move is truly perplexing unless one considers the source of the marching orders. The Spanish king who occupied the throne of Portugal had emissaries of his will aboard all Portuguese ships. These Spanish officers were not overly concerned with the preservation of Portuguese lives.
Luckily, the Portuguese army officers were. They negotiated a surrender under the stipulation their wounded received care. Dampier was happy to comply. He invited the Portuguese officers to dine with him, and thus, in one dining room, the Anglo-Portuguese alliance was renewed over bread and wine.
In the first month of 1668, Fairfax moved against Trinidad while the Spanish had only just begun to overturn English gains on the Yucatan. Trinidad subdued, the Colonial Army and attendant fleet took rest at St. Lucia, where they would remain for the rest of the war. Across the Atlantic, the guns fell silent in North Africa: the Spanish-Ottoman war ended in white peace.
In the second month of 1668, the Spanish offered a harsh peace, and were refused. Blake, who had been patrolling from Dingle Bay to the Straits of Dover throughout the war, finally saw action. The Spanish attempted to land a single regiment on the undefended Ireland. Their single transport was escorted by many more warships than Blake had at his disposal: for instance, three times the number of frigates. Still, in his usual fashion, Blake scored a flawless victory against a superior enemy.
Such a pitched battle necessitated time at port. As February ended, Blue Squadron sailed for Cornwall, breaking patrol for the first time. It was fortuitous they did. In April, the Spanish again fell upon Ireland, this time with overwhelming power at sea and on land. It would have taken the entirety of the Commonwealth Navy to match the fleet the Spaniards assembled--odds too great even for the mighty Blake. On land, too, the whole of the New Model Army would have been necessary to meet the Spanish force.
The Spaniards were not ill-met: the Irish greeted them as Catholic liberators. On Sunday, April 14th, Munster was occupied, and the Spanish soldiers received communion with Irishmen.
Ite, missa est
Despite the incredible odds, Braddock prepared to transport his 16,000 men across the Irish Sea. He planned to maneuver about the Spanish army, scorching the Earth; when the Spaniards were thoroughly starved, he would fall upon them.
However, his plans were canceled when the French passed along dire news. The Spanish embarked another massive army.
Their destination was undoubtedly England. Braddock was conflicted. He could bolster the ranks of the New Model Army and outfight the Spanish army when it landed, but the thought of devastating England for a colonial war was distasteful. Further, while he could fight the army currently in transit, Spain had at least three more armies of similar size they could ferry to Britain, discounting the one that would soon be finished occupying Ireland. Defeating one of these armies would be a laborious process, and more would be landing all the while.
The naval war also had to be considered. The Blue Squadron could wait in port while Spanish troops were deposited on their homeland, or they could engage and be defeated by the colossal Spanish fleet. In either case, the air of invincibility surrounding the Commonwealth Navy would be destroyed. This was a blow to English prestige Braddock could not accept.
On May 21st, the Commonwealth Navy offered the Spanish Armada one last show of strength.
The war as of May, 1668
On May 22nd, the Commonwealth of England offered the Kingdom of Spain concessions. They were accepted.
Peace terms, along with England’s prestige and treasury on the day of declaration, before and after the peace
Considering the dire situation England found itself in, H. van Beverningk was able to secure a rather favorable peace. Months before the invasion of Ireland, Spain demanded Peten and 2100 pounds. Van Beverningk was able to buy peace for a mere £1350, reimbursement for lost sugar harvests.
Regardless, the war was over. England lost.