The - quite lengthy - epilogue of Third Independence War (from spring 1867 to 1870)
Italian 'Bersaglieri' with Austrian prisoners, painting by Silvestro Lega
Two sad pieces of news reach the Italian people in three weeks: Head of State Carlo Poerio's death (28th April 1867) and Napoleon III's defection (20th May). A generalised grief surrounds Poerio's funerals in his birthplace Naples, where thousands give him the last homage. As prescribed by the Constitution, the Chairman of the Senate
Gabrio Casati, succeeds Poerio for the remainder of the term, until the new Presidential elections scheduled in 1871.
From a practical point of view, much more upsetting for Depretis (after the successful elections he has been confirmed Prime Minister) is the French withdrawal. After a series of naval victories against the Austro-Hungarian fleet in the Adriatic Sea,
Napoleon III decides to sue for peace with Emperor Franz Joseph. The reasons for this discreditable move could have been several: for sure, the French public opinion has never been particularly responsive to this war, particularly after Pius IX declaration of sympathy with Austria has alienated the support from the strong movement of
ultramontains. In addition, Bismarck's switch of alliances has definitely destroyed Napoleon's hopes for a "sitting war", with those intimidating Prussian divisions ready on the Rhine. Thus, on 20th May Franz Joseph favourably accepts Napoleon request for an armistice. Having reached his goal of pushing France out of Third Independence War and breaking Austria-Hungary isolation, with the Rhine front now closed and honestly disinterested in the fate of the clash in Dalmatia,
Bismarck drives out Prussia itself out of the war two months later.
The disaster of Sopron (autumn 1867)
The Hungarian town of Sopron, today
Left alone against Austria-Hungary, Italy can still hope for a victorious end of the conflict. The stalemate lasts until summer 1867, when the "political" necessity of some land victories convinces Depretis of the flawlessness of a really foolish plan, the so-called
"Hungarian diversion". Sponsored by Generals Omiccioli and La Marmora, the idea is simply a raid from the most advanced cavalry wing of the Italian Army into Hungary and then towards Wien: Omiccioli himself is given the control of the expedition, strong of 2 cavalry divisions (20.000 men). Initially, the enterprise seems to be even successful: after a long march in foreign land, on 8th September Omiccioli reaches and seize the Hungarian town of Sopron, only 90 km far from Wien. But in the following months, the madness of the plan becomes evident: isolated and in the middle of the distance between Wien and Budapest, settled in a town in the Magyar plains (not exactly the perfect configuration for defence) encircled by enemy troops,
the "guys of Sopron" are doomed. In early November, after two months of tough resistance, the Austro-Hungarians concentrate on Sopron, rapidly crushing any defence. Both Italian divisions are completely crushed, 20.000 casualties and prisoners, including Omiccioli.
The shock for the bloodbath of Sopron is huge: numerically, the annihilated divisions represent one tenth of the standing army and were of the highest quality. Instead of a realistic course,
the Italian government gives way to panic. The most advanced defence line in Croatia, at Sisak, is impulsively abandoned to reach the sea. Secret contacts with Wien through the British ambassador are shortly reactivated in order to achieve a quick armistice.
An informal peace offer in exchange for Trento, Zadar and Idrsko is refused by Austria-Hungary, which now feels that the conflict situation could turn over.
Newspapers and members of the Parliamentary opposition start to inquire on the imprudent chain of decisions that has brought such disaster. Bettino Ricasoli (leader of the larger opposition party, the conservative
Destra Permanente) personally denounces at the Chamber of Deputies the unfortunate choice made by Depretis and its ministers to push the Army for an unnecessary risk and then give consent to a mad plan. The disgrace of the request for an armistice is simply the last point of his speech, not even the most shocking. A Parliamentary vote of censure for the responsible persons passes with a strict majority and
Depretis has to resign office after almost five uninterrupted years of power.
Cadorna's recovery plan and 1869 summer offensive
The following administration contains the well-known names of Rattazzi (Prime Minister) and Crispi (Public Works) but also other younger 'Mazzinians' like Giovanni Nicotera (Interior), Benedetto Cairoli (Foreign) and Nino Bixio (War). One of the new cabinet's first duties is a complete reshuffling of the high commands: La Marmora is sacked and replaced by the younger
Raffaele Cadorna. Serving with Italian forces during the 1853-55 Useless War, Cadorna won distinction and awarded the rank of Colonel by the end of that war. Skilled in flexible firepower, his new strategic guidelines will soon gain high regard with a generalised increase in conscription, which will favour
the capture of Bozen. Left inexplicably vulnerable by the Austro-Hungarians in early 1868, the reinforced Italian army advances quickly toward the town. When the advance guard approaches Bozen, it finds limited resistance and after few days of fighting the town falls to 11 Italian divisions pouring in the area to strengthen the newly acquired position (1st April 1868).
War front in spring 1868
From now on this strange conflict, which features swift progresses followed by months of static consolidation and trench warfare, lacks of any significant action until autumn, when another successful Italian offensive seizes Zell am See (September) and Judenburg (November) before being stopped again by winter and enemy troops. After the winter pause, another Italian offensive from Udine towards Klagenfurt has soon to be withdrawn on 25th March 1869 because of the stiff resistance of Austro-Hungarian defenders. Tired with such slow and inconclusive progression, during the spring 1869 Raffaele Cadorna orders a stand-by in order to plan a large-scale and possibly decisive offensive. It would be focused on two fronts, Croatia (a mere diversion) and Austria (the primary campaign). General Belisari, the only one spared by the 1868 purge because of the previous merits gained in Tunisia and Dalmatia, is given command over the "Austrian" section of the front. The
"1869 summer offensive" begins with the diversion attempt in Croatia, where advancing deep and fast the Italians take Zagreb in the second half of July. In the meantime, Belisari troops are marching on Salzburg, without encountering particular resistance.
The morale of Austro-Hungarian troops is visibly plummeting after three years of defeats: on 9th September 1869, Wien asks Italy for an armistice, promising Idrsko and Pola (Istria) plus the Slovenian provinces of Postojna and Lubljana, but not Trento, Bozen and Zadar, the main goals of the war. Thus, the peace offer is rejected and Belisari continues to advance. Salzburg falls in September, while the troops in Croatia, overwhelmed by the enemy, lose (again in the cursed town of Sopron) two divisions and abandon Zagreb in the following autumn. But the "Croatian" diversion has been very successful, because has distracted many forces from the main front, where Belisari can conduct with limited or no opposition his manoeuvre. The final push is really a hammer on Franz Joseph's head: profiting from a corridor free of enemy troops, Belisari advances well into Bohemia, with
Praha falling in Italian hands in the dawn of 26th January 1870.
War front in January 1870
The Treaty of Praha
In Saint Wenceslaus' capital takes places the final stage of the Third Independence War, with Austro-Hungarian plenipotentiaries imploring Belisari for an armistice since the morning of 26th January. Franz Joseph has finally declared his availability to give up the territories requested by Italy during the failed negotiations after the 1869 summer offensive. Peace terms are negotiated all the day long by Foreign Minister Cairoli, Cadorna and Belisari with the Austro-Hungarian delegation led by Foreign Minister von Beust. At 5 p.m. of the same day the delegations reach the final agreement and order the cease-fire for the following midnight. The clauses of the
Treaty of Praha impose to Austria-Hungary the cession of all its Italian-speaking provinces:
- in Tyrol, Trento and Bozen (where anyway the presence of German-speaking people is massive);
- in Istria, Idrsko and Pola (also inhabited by many Slavs – Slovenians in particular);
- in Dalmatia, Zadar (coastal town of ancient Italian settlement, but populated also by Croats).
With red squares the territories gained with the Treaty of Praha
With the Treaty of Praha, the liberation of Italy from foreign rule is done, even if this last war has been really demanding. Only Rome is missing to complete a great dream, but the survival of the temporal power of Pius IX is a matter that, for the time being, cannons cannot solve …
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Sorry for the long long post, but the war didn't record too many events in three years. This part of the conflict has been really conducted with a sort of leap frogging strategy, waiting for good chances to spoil Austro-Hungarian momentary weaknesses and then consolidating the newly acquired lands. Thus, few really important events, no massive battles and slow progression. I hope this post can give anyway the sense of my actual difficulties...