1865: once more on the verge of war
As you would suppose by the title, Italy will enter a war in 1866. But what you couldn't imagine is that actually there will be
two wars. One is obvious, Austria; the second one less, and it's the invasion of Tunisia. Today we will shortly introduce the general background for both, which actually are strictly related because the Tunisian colonial conflict serves as a diversion of Austrian attention from the war preparation against the Mitteleuropean Empire. As the Tunisian war starts as first, let's begin from this.
After a long series of revolt and European intrusions (particularly by France and Britain), Tunisia has managed to become more and more autonomous from the Ottoman Empire. Some timid attempts to westernise the country have been implemented since the beginning of Muhammad III Bey's rule (started in 1859), but an uprising occurring imposes a much more accelerated schedule to modernisation. After months of instability and disorders, on 1st November 1864 the liberal Pan-African Party, which has been heavily funded by European powers including the Italian government, takes power with the aim of transforming Tunisia in the first Arab country with a form of government modelled on European political models. Unfortunately, the new rulers find a difficult budget situation and after two months (January 1865) are forced to declare
Tunisia bankrupt. In the following months, an international financial commission meets to take control over the economy and establish a recovery plan for the loans granted by the supporting countries, but without relevant improvements.
With its unquestionable pragmatism, the
Sinistra Costituzionale carefully examines the possibility of the conquest of Tunisia, even if such plan could be considered inconsistent with the principles of a political movement that has guided Italy out of foreign oppression, but now is conducting it into an aggressive colonial conflict. Yet, since the unification both ruling classes and common people have rapidly evolved their mindset in a more "European" attitude towards colonialism: a sense of necessity has emerged with reference to the prestige that some colonial adventures can bring to the Republic in its attempt to preserve the status of Great Power.
"France, Britain, Spain have their places under the sun, why we shouldn't?" is the jingle of this period. Therefore, Tunisia with its large settlements of Italians and the proximity of its coasts becomes an easy prey for Depretis: by the end of 1865, War Minister General Alfonso La Marmora has already planned the course of a possible invasion. When the international commission closes its works without any success, in the first days of 1866 the Italian government decides to send an expeditionary force to take control of the situation. Napoleon III, despite the distasteful absence of information from Naples, French interests in Tunisia and a theoretical guarantee of independence to the Muhammad III Bey, issues an unpretentious objection, but does not risk a diplomatic crisis with its close ally Italy in a period of increasing dangers coming from a strengthened Kingdom of Prussia and its quarrel against Austria. As this quarrel will trigger another war for Italy, now we can move to explore the "Northern" front…
Prussian Kaiser Willem I with his military staff
After the Useless War (1853-55), Italy and Austria had had some years of not so bad relations during the ruling period of the more accommodating
Destra Consorterista. With their defeat in the 1862 elections and the formation of Rattazzi's cabinet, the diplomatic pendulum switched again to bad, particularly because of the activism of Italian irredentists in North Italy. In 1862,
Giuseppe Garibaldi, one of most resourceful, and charismatic collaborators of Corleone during the Independence War, established the
"Società per l'Emancipazione dell'Italia" [RH] with the radical purpose of training volunteers for the liberation of the lands still in Austrian hands. Occasionally, provocative deeds and speeches offended Wien, but the situation has never resulted in open hostilities.
When Depretis comes to power in 1863, the situation begins to evolve at higher speed, also because of the deteriorating relations between Austria and Prussia. In 1863 preliminary contacts with Prussian Chancellor Bismarck are established and during an international conference held in Geneva the Italian Foreign Minister admits his government's
"natural acquaintance" with the Prussian view – despite the different political positions, liberal in Italy and quite conservative in Prussia – on its struggle for supremacy against Austria and its role in the possible unification of German peoples. The devastating floods of winter 1864 that ruined food production in many areas of the peninsula saw an instantaneous supply of provisions from Berlin and in the next June as sign of closer relationships Kaiser Willem I came to visit Head of State Carlo Poerio at Annecy (Savoy) during the opening ceremony of the construction works of a liqueur distillery started with mixed German/Italian private capital.
Since 1863, for the sake of precaution Depretis starts to build up the long-time inactive Italian military power. A brand new infantry division is set up at L'Aquila in cooperation with the advanced and well-equipped Prussian Army and supported by an attachment of North German engineers. Two years later, in order to reinforce the Northern borders another infantry/artillery division is built and sent to Udine, where in the meantime the fortification works quickly progress and the Italian high ranks begin studying the modern tactics of point defence systems.
Also the Navy, already strengthened in the past with a series of modern techniques, including night training, receives some attention: since early 1865 the shipbuilding facilities in Taranto (the naval base hosting the Southern Fleet) start the construction of the "Terribile" the first and last man-o-war ever put to sea by the Italian Navy before the advent of ironclads. Finished in October 1866, the
Terribile is an 86-gun ship of the line with a displacement of 3.800 tonnes, which can challenge with the prestigious queen of the seas "Le Napoléon", the 90-gun French warship with 5.100 tonnes of displacement. For sure this masterpiece of Italian shipbuilding will prove useful in the upcoming war against Austria!
Initiation
Design
Finished vessel, in what seems to me really a very old photo!
Salvatore Colaccicco painting of the man-o-war in the Bay of Naples
Gradually, in 1865 the sense of isolation of the Austrian Empire and the simultaneous consolidation of Italian diplomacy becomes even more evident: in February, Italy forms with France, Belgium and Switzerland the Latin Monetary Union with the aim of coordinate monetary policies, a strong sign of possible economic cooperation among these countries. Furthermore, in September
Italy and France renew their offensive and defensive military alliance, but Napoleon III has been kept in the dark of the Italian and Prussian coordination.
At New Year's Day banquet of 1866, Napoleon III announces an era of universal peace [R], unaware of the secret war measures already decided by Prussia against Austria and Italy against Tunisia, as a deception for a much more enterprising and sneaky plan: a coordinated two-sided attack against Austria.
Napoleon III couldn't be more in the wrong, because just around the corner there are six years of continental wars with unexpected changes of alliances and his own political end. Let's close this long chapter on this joyful image: French noblemen delighting their tasteful cuisine at Napoleon III banquet of illusions, few days before Prussia declares war on Austria…