Two Sicilies, AA Realm between past and future

Ahura Mazda said:

Calm before boredom?

Click to expand...

Look at the war attitude of the new ruling party in my previous post... I wouldn't bet a penny on peace for the following years! it's just matter of choosing a target: freeing the brothers in Trento from Austria or trying a colonial venture?

The age of "transformism"​

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The newly elected Parliament has an immediate task, which is renewing both the government and appointing the Head of State for the next 8 years term. The day the Chambers convene for the first ballot, the former Piedmontese leader Massimo D'Azeglio, now Chairman of the Senate, tributes a wonderful and kind-hearted speech to the incumbent Head of State Giuseppe Mazzini, whose designs have finally taken form in a liberal, united and independent Federal Republic. "All of us must show gratitude to Mazzini, as well as honourably remember Troya, Corleone, Manin and Benso for their ideas, deeds and sacrifices" concludes D'Azeglio, himself an ardent patriot of the Italian cause in the '40s.

From the presidential ballot comes out the name of Carlo Poerio: 59 years old, Neapolitan, poet and collaborator of Nicola Maresca and then Carlo Troya in the shaking days of the 1847-48 revolution against the reactionary Ferdinand II, he spent the post-unification years practising as a famed lawyer and took his seat in all the unified Chambers of Deputies elected from 1852 onward, having being chosen the body's president in 1857. Overall, his election as Head of State is only the highest step in such respectable cursus honorum.

Much more complicated is the formation of a new government because of the presence of many factions in the winning Sinistra Costituzionale: Crispi, Depretis, … without taking in consideration that also the seats of Minghetti's Destra Consorterista, even if fewer than before, are still necessary to get to confidence vote from the Chambers!

At the end of a long chain of negotiations and compromises, Urbano Rattazzi - another long lasting associate to Camillo Benso – is empowered as Prime Minister, but the key people are still there: Depretis, Crispi and Minghetti get respectively the Interior, Agriculture and Finance Ministries, General Belisari goes to the War Ministry. But the overall scenario smells too much as an underground scheme to share and preserve power, which from now on will be called trasformismo (eng., "transformism") and become an usual way of conducting Parliamentary business for decades. Rattazzi's hunt for support from various political factions will always result in a sense of wobbling and unstable cabinet. Factional disputes become endemic, whereas the cabinet himself will remain in office distributing patronage and favours to local notables and scattered members of the opposition parties to receive their continuous support.

From a financial and industrial perspective, Rattazzi does not change the general framework dictated by Camillo Benso and carried on by Minghetti during the one-year cabinet. The government attention remains focused on three macroeconomic pillars:

• Massive investments in railways (being the biggest project of Strade Ferrate Italiane in this period the connection along the Adriatic coast of Trieste to the existing lines; but with additional funding also distant lands as Savoy and Sardinia will get their railroad networks finished by the end of 1863 and 1864, respectively);
  
  
• Public interventionism in industry and agricultural/mining operations (including the expansion of a fabric factory in Piedmont, the completion of a paper mill launched by Camillo Benso before his death and the enlargement of several resources gathering operations throughout the peninsula);
  
  
• Free trade and sound financial discipline.

Also in foreign policy, Rattazzi maintains the cautious course of action of previous governments, despite the Jingoistic attitude of his colleagues. The alliance pact with Greece is amended in March 1863 as a purely defensive treaty and nothing more…

In such "ordinary course of business" tone, none could foresee the fall of Rattazzi in April, which is the result of a combination of two factors: a strong Catholic opposition indirectly led by Pius IX and the "friendly fire" coming from his own comrades. The trigger event is an education reform studied by the progressive Minister Stanislao Mancini, who aims at reducing the favourable conditions of private education in Italy, 100% controlled by the ecclesiastics. After the unification of Italy, Pius IX has gradually moved away from the original Liberal stance into a regressive conservatorism which will culminate in that uncompromising ban on liberal culture, science and society known as the 1864 Syllabus [RH].

When the news of the education reforms reaches the Vatican, the Pope himself contends its contrariness to the agreements between Italy and the Church and threatens the issuance of a Bull of excommunication against Italy as a whole. In a country still profoundly devout, you would imagine the effect of such Papal condemnation. The opposition parties, even if absolutely minoritarian in the Parliament, begin a noisy propaganda against the draft of bill, deceitfully identified as "the murder of religion" or "the legalisation of immorality". For weeks the matter dominates on newspapers and upper-class circles, but also among the masses. Italian ecclesiastical authorities, formally independent from the Vatican, support the hard-line of Pius IX and materially help the propaganda in the churches.

Rattazzi makes the unpardonable mistake to put a confidence vote on the draft of bill, which is unfortunately (for him) defeated by strict majority of two votes on 25 April 1863. On the same Parliamentary session, instead, an amendment proposed by the opposition parties aiming at an increase of funding for the private education passes with the support of many Deputies of the pragmatic Sinistra Costituzionale. The day after, Pius IX retreats its excommunication menace, but a humiliated Rattazzi has to step down. At least, as a positive consequence of the additional funding of private education programs, literacy rate will sensibly improve to almost 47% (it used to be 41% eleven years before on the brink of unification).

According the Constitution, after the resignation of a cabinet the Head of State must ascertain the possibility for the appointment of a new government before calling for new elections. Carlo Poerio gives to the other prominent leader of the Sinistra Costituzionale Agostino Depretis the duty of forming a new Ministry. Much more "introduced" than Rattazzi in the Parliamentary business and particularly skilled in transformism, Depretis inaugurates his cabinet in May 1863 with the support of a heterogeneous group of Deputies, thus keeping away the risk of further elections. Routine administration gets back in course during 1863-65, but it's time now to look a little bit outside the borders and then give some colour on the Italian foreign policy, which starting from Depretis enters a new phase with important developments expected.

stnylan: you're right, in Italy we say: "Play with the fanti [infantrymen], but leave in peace the santi [saints]".

RGB, Ahura Mazda: maybe the story will follow your pattern.

But, let's go with a short update on general context for the early '60s...


After the storm of 1848 Liberal Revolutions, a decade of peace has ensued, with the Italo-Austrian "Useless War" and the Crimean War being the two brief exceptions to the rule. But the situation rapidly evolves in various world areas and many developments occur in the seven years from 1859 to 1865. Let's see the most important of them.

• North America lives its most convulsed period since the U.S. revolution days. As all of you know, the Confederate States secede from the Union in October 1859 because of the slavery issue. Initially the war prospects seem quite balanced between the Union and Confederacy, and the Southerners (commanded by Robert Lee) win a series of victories in the first phase of the war. After the election of the abolitionist leader Abraham Lincoln in 1860, the industrial, and demographic superiority of the Unionists quickly changes the situation. The 1861 naval blockade of Confederate ports stops supplies and a mass conscription in the North allows to Unionist General Ulysses Grant to defeat Lee at Manassas and take Richmond (the Confederate capital) in July 1862, after three years of civil war.
  
  Post civil war reconstruction is still on the way that USA is again at war, now against Mexico and California (Mexican tributary state) on a border dispute over Nevada. A short conflict erupts (March 1863 – February 1864), which ends with the cessation of big parts of Nevada and two provinces along the course of Rio Grande.
  
  
  

  

  
  CSA at the brink of the American Civil War and USA after the war won against Mexico and California​
• Things move also in the frozen lands of Scandinavia: in 1860 Russia grants increasing autonomy to the Grand Duchy of Finland, re-establishing a local Diet and upgrading the Finnish language to national idiom. The Scandinavian state-building project, started with the military cooperation during the Holstein-Schleswig War, progresses steadily towards the ultimate goal of a political union, which is finally sanctioned by the Stockholm Pact of Union signed by Sweden, Denmark and Norway on 20 January 1863. Overall, the outcome of these changes is a map completely different from 1836…
  
  
  

  
  I know I could have put fog of war off! ​
  
  
• In Middle East, the Ottoman Empire wins a border war against Persia in 1863 (which has been supported – ineffectively – by Russia, while the British Empire loses its face dishonouring a guarantee on Persian independence issued years before).
  
  
• Just on the other side of the Adriatic Sea, Britain decides to transfer the Ionian Islands to Greece in 1864, ending its 50-years old protectorate on the archipelago.
  
  
• In the meantime, in Prussia the conservative Otto von Bismarck has become Prime Minister to Kaiser William I in 1862, but I suspect you will get more on this name in the next future …

1865: once more on the verge of war​

As you would suppose by the title, Italy will enter a war in 1866. But what you couldn't imagine is that actually there will be two wars. One is obvious, Austria; the second one less, and it's the invasion of Tunisia. Today we will shortly introduce the general background for both, which actually are strictly related because the Tunisian colonial conflict serves as a diversion of Austrian attention from the war preparation against the Mitteleuropean Empire. As the Tunisian war starts as first, let's begin from this.


After a long series of revolt and European intrusions (particularly by France and Britain), Tunisia has managed to become more and more autonomous from the Ottoman Empire. Some timid attempts to westernise the country have been implemented since the beginning of Muhammad III Bey's rule (started in 1859), but an uprising occurring imposes a much more accelerated schedule to modernisation. After months of instability and disorders, on 1st November 1864 the liberal Pan-African Party, which has been heavily funded by European powers including the Italian government, takes power with the aim of transforming Tunisia in the first Arab country with a form of government modelled on European political models. Unfortunately, the new rulers find a difficult budget situation and after two months (January 1865) are forced to declare Tunisia bankrupt. In the following months, an international financial commission meets to take control over the economy and establish a recovery plan for the loans granted by the supporting countries, but without relevant improvements.

With its unquestionable pragmatism, the Sinistra Costituzionale carefully examines the possibility of the conquest of Tunisia, even if such plan could be considered inconsistent with the principles of a political movement that has guided Italy out of foreign oppression, but now is conducting it into an aggressive colonial conflict. Yet, since the unification both ruling classes and common people have rapidly evolved their mindset in a more "European" attitude towards colonialism: a sense of necessity has emerged with reference to the prestige that some colonial adventures can bring to the Republic in its attempt to preserve the status of Great Power. "France, Britain, Spain have their places under the sun, why we shouldn't?" is the jingle of this period. Therefore, Tunisia with its large settlements of Italians and the proximity of its coasts becomes an easy prey for Depretis: by the end of 1865, War Minister General Alfonso La Marmora has already planned the course of a possible invasion. When the international commission closes its works without any success, in the first days of 1866 the Italian government decides to send an expeditionary force to take control of the situation. Napoleon III, despite the distasteful absence of information from Naples, French interests in Tunisia and a theoretical guarantee of independence to the Muhammad III Bey, issues an unpretentious objection, but does not risk a diplomatic crisis with its close ally Italy in a period of increasing dangers coming from a strengthened Kingdom of Prussia and its quarrel against Austria. As this quarrel will trigger another war for Italy, now we can move to explore the "Northern" front…


After the Useless War (1853-55), Italy and Austria had had some years of not so bad relations during the ruling period of the more accommodatingDestra Consorterista. With their defeat in the 1862 elections and the formation of Rattazzi's cabinet, the diplomatic pendulum switched again to bad, particularly because of the activism of Italian irredentists in North Italy. In 1862, Giuseppe Garibaldi, one of most resourceful, and charismatic collaborators of Corleone during the Independence War, established the "Società per l'Emancipazione dell'Italia" [RH] with the radical purpose of training volunteers for the liberation of the lands still in Austrian hands. Occasionally, provocative deeds and speeches offended Wien, but the situation has never resulted in open hostilities.


When Depretis comes to power in 1863, the situation begins to evolve at higher speed, also because of the deteriorating relations between Austria and Prussia. In 1863 preliminary contacts with Prussian Chancellor Bismarck are established and during an international conference held in Geneva the Italian Foreign Minister admits his government's "natural acquaintance" with the Prussian view – despite the different political positions, liberal in Italy and quite conservative in Prussia – on its struggle for supremacy against Austria and its role in the possible unification of German peoples. The devastating floods of winter 1864 that ruined food production in many areas of the peninsula saw an instantaneous supply of provisions from Berlin and in the next June as sign of closer relationships Kaiser Willem I came to visit Head of State Carlo Poerio at Annecy (Savoy) during the opening ceremony of the construction works of a liqueur distillery started with mixed German/Italian private capital.

Since 1863, for the sake of precaution Depretis starts to build up the long-time inactive Italian military power. A brand new infantry division is set up at L'Aquila in cooperation with the advanced and well-equipped Prussian Army and supported by an attachment of North German engineers. Two years later, in order to reinforce the Northern borders another infantry/artillery division is built and sent to Udine, where in the meantime the fortification works quickly progress and the Italian high ranks begin studying the modern tactics of point defence systems.


Also the Navy, already strengthened in the past with a series of modern techniques, including night training, receives some attention: since early 1865 the shipbuilding facilities in Taranto (the naval base hosting the Southern Fleet) start the construction of the "Terribile" the first and last man-o-war ever put to sea by the Italian Navy before the advent of ironclads. Finished in October 1866, the Terribile is an 86-gun ship of the line with a displacement of 3.800 tonnes, which can challenge with the prestigious queen of the seas "Le Napoléon", the 90-gun French warship with 5.100 tonnes of displacement. For sure this masterpiece of Italian shipbuilding will prove useful in the upcoming war against Austria!


Gradually, in 1865 the sense of isolation of the Austrian Empire and the simultaneous consolidation of Italian diplomacy becomes even more evident: in February, Italy forms with France, Belgium and Switzerland the Latin Monetary Union with the aim of coordinate monetary policies, a strong sign of possible economic cooperation among these countries. Furthermore, in September Italy and France renew their offensive and defensive military alliance, but Napoleon III has been kept in the dark of the Italian and Prussian coordination.

At New Year's Day banquet of 1866, Napoleon III announces an era of universal peace [R], unaware of the secret war measures already decided by Prussia against Austria and Italy against Tunisia, as a deception for a much more enterprising and sneaky plan: a coordinated two-sided attack against Austria. Napoleon III couldn't be more in the wrong, because just around the corner there are six years of continental wars with unexpected changes of alliances and his own political end. Let's close this long chapter on this joyful image: French noblemen delighting their tasteful cuisine at Napoleon III banquet of illusions, few days before Prussia declares war on Austria…

The coordination agreement (not actually a pact, but a merely informal intendment) between Depretis and Bismarck leaves to Italy a preparation period of three months before joining a conflict against Austria, but the general consensus of military headquarters n Naples is that Prussians will wait for a milder spring before attacking towards Bohemia: just the time to pursue the envisaged conquest of Tunisia, they believe … However, on 6th January 1866 Prussia – joined later by a number of Northern German principalities – declares war on Austria when an Italian expeditionary force of more than 50.000 men (5 divisions) is cruising toward the African coasts. War plans are clear and linear, as the operations need to be closed as soon as possible: the Northern Fleet leaves Genova with two divisions (one infantry plus one cavalry) commanded by General Omiccioli, targeting Tunis; the Southern Fleet leaves Taranto, loads three infantry divisions of the Southern/Sicilian armies (respectively commanded by Belisari and Lanza) and sails toward Susa.


The two branches of the expeditionary force land on 26th January: in Tunis Omiccioli finds and quickly routs a weak garrison of 4.000 men, while Belisari (the unfit Lanza, ageing hero of the Independence War's decisive battle of Bergamo, will be soon eclipsed and "put to rest") takes Susa almost without losses. February does not record particular events, being Omiccioli engaged in the suppression of the last resistance in Tunis (the city will be pacified only on 1st March) and Belisari occupied with the repositioning of his corps in the tough desertic regions of the South. The most important clash occurs in the province of Afrikaya on the same day of a pathetic Tunisian attempt to stop the naval blockade imposed by the Italian fleets. Without any kind of local resistance, also the forts of Gafsa and Tozeur in the Djerid province fall to Italian troops. By the end of April (in the meantime the conflict against Austria has already commenced), the reunited expeditionary force moves for the final battle against the last broken pieces of resistance, led by Nefzi, the Wali of Gabes. A pitiful attempt of negotiation tried by Mustafa Khaznadar, a representative of an already collapsed regime who has offered Italy the colonial administration of the Southern provinces, fails and the final word is left to the battlefield. On 16th May 1866, 48.000 Italians encircle and crush 9.000 Tunisians and conquer the fort of Gabes. Military operations are over.


While Belisari is called back to Europe for the war against Austria, Omiccioli stays in Tunis just the time to conduct peace negotiations. They last more than expected because of Napoleon III's opposition to concede a full annexation of Tunisia to Italy. The final agreement arrives only on 28th May: Italy takes over the whole country except for Tunis, where Mustafa Khaznadar is reinstated. The combination of war indemnities and Khaznadar's profligate expenditure will soon lead to another bankruptcy and the appointment of a second international debt commission (1869) by France, Britain, Italy and Ottomans, which will also guarantee the independence of Tunis. Yet, another bankruptcy will come in 1872 in a dramatic spiral of corruption, mismanagement and prohibitive financial burdens.

With elegance (and some relief for younger and smarter military officers), the old glory General Lanza is honoured with the title of Governor of Tunisia and left in the administrative centre of Susa with a garrison of 8.200 carabinieri, while the bulk of the expeditionary force repatriates to fight against Austria. From time to time, the Tunisians will revolt against the foreign dominance but Lanza will spend little energy to crush them. Overall, the pacification of a colony conquered in four months of real warfare and inhabited by few, dispersed and quiet residents will not distract resources from the bigger European theatre of war.

RGB, stnylan: you've seen the Marina Militare employed in Tunisia. And much more in the future against evil Austria! and yes, we will witness again a Battle of Lissa, but with inverted result.

By the way, what do you think of the summary chronology/timelines I have developed into post 1 of this thread???

Third Independence War (*): the opening in spring/summer 1866​

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Bound to keep underground war preparations against the future Austrian enemy, on 30th January 1866 the Italian high commands issue an extraordinary mobilisation of reserve divisions for the invasion of Tunisia that is literally inexplicable for the public opinion and war observers: 160.000 additional troops plus 3.500 pounds five-months bridge loans granted by international banks (and a drastic even if momentary cut to other State expenses passed by the government) seem to everybody a little bit oversized for the small colonial venture in Tunisia …

In fact, those 16 divisions are set to strengthen the stretched front along the Alps (from Bergamo to Trieste) and quickly pour onto the borderline thanks to the availability of railroads, which will be one of the most interesting features of this war. Prussia and Italy have extensively developed systems, which increase supplying and movement capabilities of their armies; instead, the only relevant track in Austria is the Klagenfurt-Plzen line: in the rest of the Empire, troops and provisions still move by feet or packhorses.


With Belisari still engaged in Tunisia, General Enrico Cialdini temporarily assumes the highest command of the army and establishes the headquarters in Udine. His plans resemble those of the First Independence War: the army is divided into halves, one (the larger) under his command operating in Trentino/Tirol; the other, under Garibaldi aiming at the Istrian peninsula. On 23rd April 1866 the declaration of war is delivered to the Austrian ambassador. Cialdini's army moves towards Trento and Garibaldi's towards Pola, two fundamental targets left poorly defended by the Austrians.


The secrecy of war preparations and the perceived backstabbing of Austria amplify the indignation of the European powers and hit the Italian prestige. Russian and British ambassadors issue an official protest against Naples, Switzerland and even the friendly Ottomans mobilise their troops as a response to the declaration of war (even if anyone of them will never join the hostilities). Napoleon III reluctantly goes into war in support of Italy and thus Prussia only to avoid a dishonourable repudiation of the alliance with Naples. Before describing the opening phase of the war, let's take a look to a comparative exercise of the strength of the combatants. Again, Austrian land force is second to none, but if Italy and Prussia are able to coordinate their war efforts (sincerely, I don't count on France) victory should be there. But don’t forget other German minors, here not shown (for example, take Bavaria with its 9 divisions, just half of the Prussian ones at start): even if not crucial like the four major countries, they can anyway play an important role.


In April/May, there aren't deviations from Cialdini original strategic directions. On the Alpine front, the Italian troops collect their first important victory with Cialdini himself, who guides 9 divisions into Tirol and defeats the Austrians at Trento after 4 days of furious fighting (the town falls after three weeks of siege on 28th May, the same day the peace agreement with Tunisia is signed). Following the fall of Trento, Cialdini consolidates the position to prepare the next leap to Bozen. During June, the advancement towards the Tyrolese capital is particularly difficult due to unexpectedly bad weather conditions and it takes weeks to get 8 divisions within few kilometres from Bozen. By now five additional Austrian divisions have reinforced the area, initially defended by only one. A series of engagements ensues, in which the Austrians are able to force an Italian retreat: in one of the skirmishes, occurred on 6th August, Cialdini himself is seriously wounded and orders a withdrawal to Trento, where he dies in the following month for the consequences of the lesions. The Italian troops dig-in in there, establishing a static Alpine front that is to last for the next two years.


In Istria, the absence of natural obstacles and the possibility of moving troops also by sea prevent the creation of stationary frontlines; furthermore, Garibaldi's renowned guerrilla tactics prove particularly appropriate in these lands, where the regular army can count on the support of the Italian residents. From his headquarters at Trieste, Garibaldi impulsively attacks in the direction of Pola (taken on 7th June) and Fiume (24th July). Driven by the enthusiastic acceptance he got in these towns inhabited by lots of Italians and a supposed weakness of the enemy on this area, Garibaldi dreams for few days about a raid on Wien, but the subsequent consolidation with fresh reinforces will hamper his ambitious plan.

Stuck in Tyrol and Istria, in the meantime a third front opens in Dalmatia. Belisari – returned in his full power from the victorious campaign of Tunisia – has received a draft plan of campaign prepared with the help of the Prussian General Count Moltke that contemplates the landing of forces along the Dalmatian coast. After a vivacious consultation with Cialdini and Garibaldi, the plan is approved and quickly executed. On 6th June, two advance guard divisions land in Zadar, the only relevant Dalmatian town where a conspicuous "fourth column" of Italians lives, reinforced two weeks later by almost 30.000 men just coming from Tunisia. They meet a strong resistance on the part of the Austrian garrison (two divisions), which do not surrender until the last man is dead. Only at the end of July the overwhelming Italian expedition can claim to have full control of the city, when the perspective of a quick victory has vanished in the valleys of Tyrol and Istria and also Prussia is having its problems in subjugating the unexpectedly stiff resilience of the soldiers of Bavaria and Hanover.


(*) Being the 1847-52 the (First) Independence War and the 1853-55 Useless War the second, the name for this third conflict against Austria to free the "terre irredente" comes out obviously. And that's actually the name with which the Austro-Prussian war is recalled here in Italy.