Century in Summary - The 13th Century (1100-1200)
With the death of an empire and Konrad asserting his control over his own, it is once more time to pause and reflect on the century that has passed across Europe.
So I ask you to cast your minds back to 1200 A.D., when the legendary Havel was nearing his end and the path of the world had been irrevocably changed by his creation of the Gryfita Empire.
British Isles
England had been remarkably stable under the Norman dynasty in the previous century. Most had grown accustomed to the presence of French dukes-turned-kings, and with the collapse of France as a nation, the awkward predicament of a French duke who was also the king of England being a vassal of the French king was deftly avoided. It also afforded them the chance to expand their holdings around Normandy with little effort.
England had also been able to expand into the north, albeit slowly due to the rough terrain of Scotland as a whole. A series of succession crises and territorial losses to England, Norway and even Ireland had left the Dunkeld dynasty in crisis, with Scotland on the cusp of falling apart.
As Scotland struggled with their decline, another kingdom struggled with its own. A series of succession crises and territorial losses to England, Norway and even Ireland had brought the Dunkeld dynasty to a crisis point, with Scotland as a whole threatening to evaporate. Whilst they struggled with their decline, another kingdom struggled with its rise. Ireland had been unified, something once thought impossible, in a way almost too fanciful for non-fiction. Truth is stranger than fiction.
The first unifier of Ireland was Sultan Alam 'the Usurper'. Even today, when the uniformed are told of the Sultanate of Ireland, there is a mixture of laughter and confusion.
Alam belonged to the Ua Briain dynasty, who by the late 12th century were set to conquer the island, with England happy to take land from Scotland and otherwise leave Ireland alone.
However, the dynasty had acquired a sinister reputation for cruelty, with a penchant for tyranny and high taxes making them deeply unpopular with many of their vassals. Hence the nickname 'the Tormentor' for the soon-to-be High King Androus. While unpopular, his military gave him the authority to rule as he pleased. Even members of his own dynasty disliked him and his greatest act of infamy was murder of his own brother and claimant.
Enter Alam.
His origins are a mystery, though recent research has shed some light on the subject. Androus had one younger brother who had taken part in a crusade to conquer Egypt in 1187. This brother, who is never named in sources, is said to have been killed in the fighting. Most historians now believe that this man was Alam. That was not his actual name, of course, but it was the name he had taken. The legend says that Alam was rescued from the battle by a common Egyptian widow and nursed back to health. The two soon fell in love and from her Alam slowly began to adopt and embrace Egyptian culture. It is telling that he opted to stay in a foreign land rather than his own homeland.
When Androus learned of another claimant, he demanded that the newly appointed King of Egypt, installed after the successful crusade, imprison him. When he was refused, an attempt was made on his life, in which Alam's lover was killed. Enraged, he sailed to his birthplace, where he would spend a year at the head of an army seeking revenge. No sooner had Androus placed the crown upon his head than he found himself in a civil war with few allies, who flocked to Alam's side and his host of volunteers and mercenaries.
Arduous was defeated in 1299 and summarily executed. In tribute to his love of Egyptian culture and his dead lover, Alam refused to take a more Irish name and demanded to be called Sultan. Most were willing to tolerate this little oddity for the sake of peace, but Alam soon found himself in another civil war with those who rejected the rule of a perceived foreigner. Thus began the Sultanate of Ireland.
Truth can be stranger than fiction sometimes.
Western Europe
Since our last summary, the balance of power in Europe had changed drastically. This was not only due to the rise of a powerful pagan empire in the east, but also to a clash of two divergent cultures which had toppled the second most powerful kingdom in Europe at the time.
The collapse of France has largely been attributed to a single man: King Hugues II ‘the Tormentor’ of France. With such a nickname, used by contemporaries even, his reign would be regarded as one of the worst in French history.
King Hugues II inherited the throne in 1136 after the death of his father, the comparatively popular King Raoul II 'the Just'. The first few years of his reign were largely uneventful, with the man proving to be a charismatic reveler famous for his extravagant feasts. But in 1139 his world was to be shattered by a terrible stroke of misfortune.
The south of France was prone to rebellion because of the different cultures and the often exploitative nature of the taxes levied on the lords of the south. Their language was also often ignored, with all ceremonies and laws being in either Latin or French, not Occitane. In 1139 there was a major peasant revolt in the south. This rebellion was met in battle by King Hugues II, who was attempting to demonstrate his own power to the southern lords. Though the royal forces would win, it would not be without loss. In the chaos of the battle, the king would be gravely injured. A loose crossbow bolt struck him in his helmet, piercing through his eye guard. The guard stopped the bolt sufficiently to prevent instant death, but not enough to save his eye. The metal of the guard, perhaps of poor quality, would shatter and embed shrapnel in the other eye, rendering him totally blind. The battle would be won and the rebellion crushed, however King Hugues II was forever changed.
Not too dissimilar to our exploration of Konrad Gryfita, King Hugues II would undergo a total personality change, becoming cruel and embittered. His descent into tyranny is largely irrelevant for our purposes, except that in 1141 he would undertake his most infamous campaign. The Harrying of the South, as it is most commonly known, was a period of over a year during which the king's men destroyed (harried) southern villages, mainly to find the peasant responsible for his blindness and take his revenge on those he felt had wronged him. Tens of thousands were killed, and the killing of innocent Christians prompted outrage and later excommunication. It was an act of political self-harm.
Such harm was used against him. In response, and with the support of the southern lords, Duke Aimeric I would launch a rebellion of his own at the turn of 1143. The aim was not to overthrow King Hughes II, but to secede the south as a whole. Four years of fighting would see the now King Aimeric 'the Liberator' crowned as the first King of Aquitaine, a title not held since King Carloman, brother of Charlemagne.
By 1200, Aquitaine was the dominant power. France was in chaos, with England, Brittany and the HRE all taking advantage of both powers at various times to seize land. Aquitaine would hold and begin to consolidate its own position, eyeing what was left of the mainland and eager to reclaim lost land.
The HRE had weathered the Second Antipapal Crisis, with the Papacy coming out on top. Though destabilised, it was still the leading power in Europe and had been able to capitalise on the instability of its catholic neighbors to expand. As the central power of the continent slowly stabilised, it was viewed by many as the greatest (and only) counterbalance to the Gryftia Empire.
Iberia
As we venture back towards the Iberian Peninsula, we can see that imperial expansion was not just limited to Europe. As the Almoravid Sultanate looked poised to conquer the remainder of Iberia, they were set upon in 1189 by a surprise attack from an unlikely source. Unbeknownst to Sultan Awzal, the Mallorca islands that had proved to be a haven for the Muslim pirates and slavers, had been conquered the year prior. This island then acted as a staging point for an invasion into Granada, with the HRE coming out victorious.
This was the first setback from an outside source the Almoravid Sultanate had faced, which would bring their conquering momentum to a crashing halt. Castille, reduced to only a few provinces, was granted a reprieve, though with even Aquantaine taking lands across The Pyrenees Mountains, their survival was not guaranteed.
Eastern Europe
Around 1200, the legendary Havel Gryfita was on his deathbed, becoming increasingly ill. His achievements have already been well documented in this book, although they will be briefly summarised.
After the death of his father and theological founder of the Slavic faith, Wratislaw 'the Dove', in 1154, Havel had seen to the official reformation of his faith in 1158, then the founding of the Gryfita Empire in 1172. He had then seen to the subjugation of the Lithuanian and Baltic tribes to his north-east, with the vassals he placed in positions of power seeing to further expansion eastwards. As the 1200's came to a close, the Gryfita Empire was now the dominant power in Eastern Europe.
It wasn't without its rivals, for the HRE had recovered from its religious crisis, and there was talk of a renewed Eastern Crusade, to be timed not so subtly after Havel's death. Even in its infancy, the Empire was sandwiched between hostile powers that would take advantage of any weakness. The fall of Kievan Rus had weakened the enemies to the east and facilitated expansion, but the threat from the west was just beginning to grow.
Far East
The nomadic and tribal nature of the Far East remained unchanged, by 1200 various factions still battled each other for control of land and resources. What had changed in the previous century was the religious nature of the area. Cumania had been the dominant power in the region and, importantly, a Tengri confederation. Its collapse, largely sparked by Swietopelk III in 1136 with the assassination of Khagan Kopti and the later conquest of Kiev, left a religious power vacuum.
This vacuum was to be filled by Islam. The Seljuk Turks had begun a limited campaign in the region in the 1150s. This conquest was not far-reaching, but the influx of traders and missionaries were. This led to a wave of rulers forsaking their own pagan ways. The reasons for conversion varied from genuine belief, to access to the empire's trade markets, to currying favour to avoid conquest. Whatever the logic behind the decision, by 1200 all but the most northern or remote tribes had embraced Sunni Islam.
This did nothing to stop factional warfare, except to reduce the local slave trade, since it was forbidden to take a fellow Muslim as a slave. It did, however, establish a strong Muslim influence that would remain once the Mongols entered history, setting the scene for when the Mongols would follow suit.
Scandinavia
Scandinavia was not mentioned in the previous summary as it was largely irrelevant for our purposes. It would not enter imperial history until the conquest of Gotland by Wojslawa in 1211, but a comparison before and after the prolonged pagan settlement by the Gryfita Empire would be valuable.
By the 11th century, Sweden, one of the last hold-outs of paganism in Europe, had largely been Christianised, before Swietopelk III added one more. The hope of the Swedish monarchs had been to integrate their kingdoms into the Catholic world, bringing them new allies and financial opportunities. Unfortunately for them, this world was falling apart as they joined it.
The Second Antipapal Crisis had shattered the unity of Catholicism. It would be mended in time, but not in time to save Sweden, and to a lesser extent Norway, from pagan invasion. This did not (yet) come from the Gryfita Empire, but rather from the Suomenusko pagans in the Finnish lands of the east. The Lappi and Suomi tribes were both able to take advantage of the fact that the Catholics on the mainland were preoccupied with internal strife and expanded at the expense of their two Christian neighbours. The most egregious of these expansions came in 1197, when the much smaller Suomi tribe, under the famous King Rieti, captured the Swedish capital of Uppland, whose temple was promptly burnt down.
These territorial losses sowed division and instability, leading to frequent rebellions that only weakened these nations further. When they were able to ask for help, few were willing or able to lend it. The Christianisation of Scandinavia, so recently begun, seemed ready to be reversed.
Asia and North Africa
Once again, we end with two empires at odds with each other.
The decline of the Byzantine Empire had been halted by the work of Alexios Kommenos I, who would follow the tradition of Roman emperors and then be assassinated in 1117 after his reforms, though effective and vital to the survival of the empire as a whole, proved fatally unpopular.
The Kommenos line would then be subjected to an intense period of dynastic misfortune. Alexios I had three children ready to take his place as Emperor, all of whom had won the favour of the Imperial Council and all of whom were competent military leaders in their own right. The first son, Andronikos, would rule for only two years before dying of measles in 1119. His brother Ioannes II would last only a year, dying of consumption in 1120. His last and youngest child, Ioannes II, would last longer, seven years, before a battlefield injury he suffered during an attempt to reconquer the lands held by Rum became infected and caused his death in 1126.
Losing four emperors in the space of ten years was not a recipe for the stability the empire desperately needed. With the bad luck associated with the line, the Komnenos dynasty would soon find its influence waning in favour of other houses. These new emperors had varying degrees of success, but none could wrest further control from the Seljuk vassal state.
By 1200, the reigning basileus, Constantine XII, was unpopular and focused more on religious studies than leadership. His empire was heavily in debt, heresy was rampant and much of Alexios I's work seemed to have been in vain.
Meanwhile, their Muslim neighbours were at the height of their power.
The Seljuks had come to dominate much of Persia and Arabia under a series of rulers who were able to expand rapidly into their neighbours and bring them under their rule. In particular, the conquests of Sultan Sencer I 'One Hand' saw the culmination of Islamic achievement in 1197 where, shortly before his death, he declared that it would be his dynasty that would become caliphs, the successor to the Prophet Mohammad. As the dominant power, no other state could hope to match such a claim.
The title had been held by the Abbasid dynasty, once the rulers of the Abbasid caliphate, but the meteoric rise of the Seljuks had largely eclipsed their power in favour of the Turks. Their role as caliph was largely ceremonial by 1200, with Sultan Sencer I having done away the ceremony and declaring the official transition of the title.
The Seljuk Turks had expanded their influence and become obscenely wealthy. By 1200 they were experiencing what some would call the Second Islamic Golden Age. However, this wealth and fame would begin to affect the dynasty in a negative way. In a culture and faith that discouraged decadence, the reigning caliph, Mohammed II, had already proved himself wanting. His extravagant parties, outrageous spending and immoral behaviour disturbed many, but no one dared challenge the ruling Sejuks.
As we shall see, such a challenge would come from the unlikeliest of places - the far eastern steppes, under a universal Mongol ruler.