1%yboompook said:
forezjohn said:
; en gras les ajouts ou remplacements; soulignés a enlever (de préférence)
forezjohn said:
x
GER_39_DESC Germany's defeat in 1918 ushered in its first democratic government, as well as a legacy of economic misery and irredentist resentment against the 'slave treaty' of Versailles. Shorn of its colonies and its Polish provinces, burdened with reparations payments and an artificially weakened army, treated as a pariah state for its alleged responsibility for the war, Germany's political path throughout the Weimar Republican years was a tragic spiral of violence and extremism. The ascent of Adolf Hitler's National Socialist Party in 1933 marked a turning point in Germany's historical development. Representative government, comprehensive civil rights and a free press were quickly swept away by the incoming Nazis, who embarked on an increasingly vicious campaign of repression against the nation's 'undesirables', such as Jews, Communists, Trade Unionists, and other opponents of the regime. But Hitler also revitalized Germany's languishing economy and promised to end the inequities of Versailles. German diplomatic triumphs followed one by one: the remilitarization of the Rhineland, the long-awaited Anschluss with Austria, and the absorption of Czechoslovakia. But Britain and France refused to cave in over Germany's challenge to Poland, and now the Reich unexpectedly finds itself at war with three encircling powers. Can the still-modest German war machine defeat such a formidable array of enemies? Only the enigmatic ruler in Berlin knows for sure. x
ITA_39_DESC Italy entered the First World War with high expectations of gaining territory in the Alps and along the Adriatic shoreline from the Austro-Hungarians, and perhaps taking part in the carve-up of the moribund Ottoman Empire. Its actual performance in that war was disappointing, however, and it received less than expected from the Versailles settlement following the Armistice. This further weakened the country's already unstable parliamentary democracy and paved the way for Benito Mussolini's famous 'March on Rome' in 1922, which helped establish Europe's first fascist dictatorship. To help bolster the popularity of his autocratic regime Mussolini was pledged to return Italy to Great Power status, to build up formidable land, sea and air forces, and to expand the Italian colonial empire. In 1936 his successful offensive against the Abyssinians removed the ignominious stain of Italy's 1898 defeat at Adowa, but the attack permanently alienated Italy from the West. Now, as war clouds loom over Europe, should Italy throw its hat into the ring? The booty of conquest beckons, but it is far from clear whether Italy's modest industrial resources are capable of extended war. The fate of the Italian fascist experiment is uncertain. x
SOV_39_DESC No other nation suffered such domestic political turmoil as Russia during the Great War, which saw the ancient throne of the Romanov Tsars toppled and the vast empire of Peter the Great and Alexander II fall into the hands of a mass revolutionary movement the Bolshevik Marxists of Vladimir Illych Lenin. Renamed the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), the country was rededicated to the spread of revolutionary communist ideology across the world, making it a pariah amongst the decadent capitalist economies of Europe. After Lenin's death and a series of behind-the-scenes intrigues, his lieutenant Josef Stalin emerged as the heir to the Bolshevik legacy. By a ferocious policy of industrialization and an equally uncompromising attitude towards political foes, Stalin consolidated his position as supreme ruler of the USSR and returned the once-battered and ignored Russian state to the diplomatic table as a major power. But many strategic dilemmas continue to haunt him. The surprise rapprochement with Communism's bitterest ideological foe, Nazi Germany, gives the USSR a chance to expand in Eastern Europe while Hitler is busy fighting the British and French. But whether this artificial peace can be sustained for long is questionable. And never forget Japan, far to the East. x
JAP_39_DESC The only non-western country to successfully negotiate the transition from a traditional economy and society to an advanced industrial nation-state, Japan did well out of the First World War, occupying the former German Pacific island chains and clearly advancing its claim to be the preeminent power in Asia. But financial misfortunes during the 1920s destabilized Japan's civilian parliamentary government, and led the way for a series of bloody coups and assassinations by extreme nationalist military leaders. An increasing concern at the country's poor raw materials base, essential for the subjugation of further colonial territory, led the military to attack Manchuria in 1931 in pursuit of Japan's long-standing aim of achieving hegemony over China. This brought material rewards but also loud complaints from the western democracies, which now seemed increasingly hostile towards Japan's strategic goals. A further full-scale attack on China began in 1937, but despite many battlefield triumphs an end to the conflict still seems far off. As war breaks out in far-off Europe, Japan stands at a crossroads with many options but no straightforward path. Is an offensive against Soviet Siberia a better long-term plan than the Chinese quagmire? Or how about the oil and rubber-rich provinces of South East Asia? The Americans may prove dangerous foes, they too must be taken into account.
USA_39_DESC In 1900 America was not yet considered one of the world's leading nations and its diplomacy was of limited importance in the affairs of the Great Powers. The crucial intervention of the United States on the Allied side in 1917 changed this forever: America became one of the key players in international finance and politics and its seemingly inexhaustible resources of labour industry and raw materials dwarfed those of the battered European states. But Americans retreated into diplomatic isolation after the ending of hostilities and their economic pre-eminence was rudely cut short by the 1929 Wall Street Crash and the ensuing Great Depression which with its epicentre in the New York stock markets hit the USA hardest of all. President Roosevelt's 1933 'New Deal' sought to reverse the nation's deep malaise and has by 1939 achieved some success. But Roosevelt is growing ever more concerned about the threat to democracy from the resurgent fascist states of Europe and the military extremists of Japan. His problem lies in the clear unwillingness of the American public to countenance any foreign expeditions even with the best of motives. Can FDR aid Britain and France in their war against Germany while holding his divided people together? x
FIN_39_DESC With the demise of the Russian Czar's powers Finland, having been under her Eastern neighbour's rule since 1808, was granted more autonomy. In 1906 a monocameral parliament was installed along with universal suffrage for men and women alike. The parliament, the first in Europe to have a Social Democratic majority since 1916, exploited Russia's weakness after the February Revolution of 1917 and declared Finland's independence in July of the same year. The declaration of the right of self-determination proclaimed by the new Soviet government during the October Revolution strengthened the Finnish claim for independence. On December 6th, 1917, the proclamation of sovereignty was reoeated and acknowledged by the Soviet rulers in late December. An attempt of Finnish Socialists to seize power in early 1918 caused a bloody civil war in which the White Guards, supported by the German Kaiser, prevailed over the Socialist's Red Guards. After the defeat a Communist Party seperated from the Social Democrats and was declared illegal in 1930 after numerous attempts of insurgence. In 1921 Finland reached its largest expansion when the League of Nations declared the Aland islands Finnish territory. In 1932 the country signed a non-aggression pact with the USSR. The secret protocol of the Ribbentrop-Molotov Pact from August 1939 declared Finland to be a sphere of interest of the Soviet Union. x
SPA_39_DESC The Spanish confidence was badly shaken after the war against the U.S.A. in which the colonies of Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam were lost. Seperatist movements like those of the Basques or the Catalans gained support, the church interfered in politics, and a radical workers movement destabalized the balance between conservatives and liberals. After taking the governmentin 1902 Alfons XIII showed expansionist tendencies as demonstrated by the intervention in Morocco.. The Algeciras Act of 1906 did acknowledge Spanish interests in Morocco, institutionalized by a protectorate over the north and south of the African country in 1912, but it became a source of permanent unrest. During World War 1 Spain remained neutral. After 1918 the social tensions erupted in a number of revolts by the rural populace and right wing as well as anarchistic factions. Alfons XIII supported the military coup against the government by General Miguel Primo de Rivera who abolished the constitution of 1876 and installed a dictatorial rule between 1923 and 1930. He ended the uprising in Morocco with a victory over Abd el-Krim in 1926, but could not master the economic crisis and had to resign after repeated revolts by the military and students. In 1931 Alfons XIII also abdicated and allowed the Liberal Conservative Niceto Alcalá Zamora y Torres the proclamation of the Second Republic.The republic, however, could not overcome the deep rift between the factions of the Spanish society, reaching from fascist Falangists to monarchists, conservative liberals, left liberals, socialists, communists and Anarcho-Syndicalists. And so, in 1936 the shadow of civil war loom over the Iberian country The differences eventually led to the Spanish Civil War which erupted in 1936. The National Front went into armed conflict against the elected People's Front government. Francisco Franco y Bahamondeled the National Front and united the catholic traditionalists and the Falangists with his faction. In 1939 Franco achieved - supported militarily by both Germany and Italy - victory over the People's Front who had been favored by the USSR and Mexico and who had signed up the aid of the International Brigades of Republicans, Socialists, and Communists from all over the world.. x
SCH_39_DESC The Swiss Confederation saw crisis in 19th century. In several cantons liberal powers prevailed, calling for more democracy and more centralism. This met the opposition of the catholic, conservatively dominated cantons who formed the Sonderbund in 1845. The Sonderbund War erupted in 1847 which saw the liberals as victors. In 1848 a Federal Constitution was ratified, turning the loose league of cantons into a Federal Stae with a new federal capital in Bern. The new constitution created new institutions like the (Bundesrat) Federal Council, Bundesversammlung (Federal Assebly), and Bundesgericht (Federal Court). Switzerland remained neutral during World War I, although there were various domestic conflicts between German and French speaking Swiss citizens. In addition economical problems arose, completely surrounded as the country was by warring nations. The radical left gained a lot of support during that time, and in 1918 a strike called for by the workers movement attempted to push through major social changes. The attempt failed, but in its wake social reforms were begun, bringing about higher wages and shorter work days. In 1919 the system of proportional representation was introduced. The conservative Freisinnige lost their majority while the social democrats grew stronger. Into the 1930s the domestic politics were governed by the conflict between social democrats and conservatives. Switzerland joined the LEague of Nations in 1920 despite the resistance efforts by conservatives and Swiss friendly towards Germany. The integral, unconditional neutrality was replaced by the differentiating neutrality. The London Declaration permitted Switzerland to deny the support of military sanctions. In 1938, however, the country returned to the integral neutrality. The country, bordering Nazi Germany in the North and Fascist Italy in the South feared conflict with her neigbours. The political parties countered the threat of National Socialism and Fascism with a broad alliance for the spiritual country defense. x
HUN_39_DESC Following closely after the armistice of November 1918 a democratic national council under Prime Minister Mihály Count Károlyi declared Hungary an independent republic. The neighboring countries, especially Romania and the new Kingdom of Serbs, Slovenes, and Croats, seized the opportunity for territorial conquests. Domestic disputes about the future design of the republic forced the government Károlyi to resign, and the Socialist Party of Hungary, a coalition of Communists and Social Democrats, took power. Under the leadership of Béla Kun a council republic was established. Their attempts at forced social reforms soon led to violent conflicts, however. With the aid of Czech and Romanian troops the forces of restoration managed to crush the republic within a matter of months, at first leading to 'white terror', costing the lives of many suporters of the political left. The situation remained unclear. After the 1920 elections a constitution containing both autoicratic and parliamentary elements was ratified. The question of whether or not the last Habsburg, Karl IV, was to become KIng of Hungary was solved with a compromise. An administrator was appointed instead of a monarch, with former navy admiral Miklós Horthy heeding the call. In the peace treaty of Trianon 1920 Hungary acknowledged formally many territorial claims: the Czechoslovakian for Slovakia, the Romanian for Siebenbürgen, and the Yugoslavian for Croatia and Slovenia. Hungary had lost 70 percent of her territory and 65 percent of her population. Two coup attempts in 1921 to bring Karl IV onto the throne failed while Horthy exploited his position for taking power from the parliament and persecuting democratic forces. To the Great Depression and the social tensions accompanying it Horthy reacted by appointing the ultra conservative Gyula Hömbös as prime minister (1932 - 1936) who would conduct the conducted Hungary's rapprochement towards Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. The dreams of a Greater 'Hungary' were hardly fulfilled. The Munich Treaty 1938 brought no advantages and the later agreement between Germany and Italy were only minor revisions. Only after the dissolution of Czechoslovakia in 1939 did Hungary achieve minor expansion. x
TUR_39_DESC Following World War One the territory of the defeated Ottoman Empire had been reduced to Anatolia in the peace treaty of SŠvres 1920. Mustafa Kemal organised the national resistance against foreign invaders bringing about a major victory over the Greek in 1922 after which the Peace of SŠvres was revised and Turkey was granted control of the (de-militarized) Bosporus. After the last Sultan had been deposed and the capital had been moved to Ankara the Republic of Turkey was proclaimed on October 29th 1923. Kemal who would begin calling himself Atat?rk (Father of the Turks) from 1934 on began a cultural reform moving towards nationalist instead of religious ideals and abolishing the Caliphate in 1924. A year later a Kurdish uprising was brutally suppressed and Kemal disposed of all dangerous opposition during that time. Kemal's reforms were aimed at removing the old elite and patterns of power. Islam was no longer state religion by constitution the Latin alphabet was introduced as well as the international calendar and time system. A code of laws was patterned after the Swiss civil law and the traditional Fez was no longer allowed to be worn. Economically the young state focused on industrialisation and the building up of a decent infrastructure. When the Great Depression caused an agricultural crisis in Turkey in 1929 Kemal steered a course self-sufficiency. In 1934 the first Five Year Plan introduced the era of planned economy. At first the young republic found a good friend in the Soviet Union who had been the only country to support the Anatolian independence movement. However when Turkey was allowed by international law to fortify the Bosporus and the Dardanelles the Western powers became more important especially Great Britain. Nevertheless an independent foreign policy remained a main goal for Kemal Atat?rk. After the death of Atat?rk in 1938 Ismet In”n? became president. During the politcal crisis that kept growing Ankara remained neutral keeping an equal distance to both London and Berlin. x
BRA_39_DESC After slavery was abolished in 1888, the republicans gained much support from all parts of the Brazilian Empire. In 1889 the revolt began with a revolt of the military garrison and ended with the declaration of the Republic of Brazil. The 1891 constitution was patterned after the U.S. constitution, granting considerable autonomies to the respective provinces. Under the first elected presidents the domestic situation stabilized, but Brazil got into the cycle of economic crisis - Sugar Crisis 1890, Coffee Crisis 1896, end of the rubber boom 1913. Meanwhile, Brazil's foreign minister, Baron Do Rio Branco extended the Brazilian territory through a series of treaties with British-Guyana, Columbia, Bolivia, Peru, and Uruguay the country's territory by over 250,000 square miles. Growing industries and a high influx of immigrants led to a strong industrial proletariat, changing the society of Brazil. The flourishing exports after World War One came to an end with the Great Depression of 1929/30, especially when the prices for coffee and rubber plummeted. A movement of social reformist officers called 'Tenentismo' took advantage of the situation, supporting the revolution of Getúlio Dornelles Vargas who established an authoritarian rule with strong presidential powers and highly reduced autonomies of the federal states, turning Brazil into a dictatorship by and by. In 1937 he proclaimed the 'Estado Nuovo', disbanding the congress and banning all parties. Looking at the richness with natural industries, Vargas began focusing on the development of heavy industry, aided by the U.S.A. Even though Vargas restricted the influence of big landowners and pushed through social reforms which improved the situation of the poorer of his subjects the social classes remained the same. x
SIA_39_DESC Until 1932 Siam had been an absolute monarchy. An attempted coup then sent the nation into spasms of revolution, counter-revolution, and coup d'etat. Though still technically a monarchy, by 1936 Siam was ruled by a triumvirate consisting of the prime minister (Phya Bahol Sena), the minister of defense (Col. Luang Phibun Songgram), and the foreign minister (Luang Pradit). Indeed, the young king, Ananda Mahidol, did not even visit his country until 1938, despite being crowned in 1935. One of the primary goals of this new constitutional monarchy was to establish Siamese autonomy over both its internal and external affairs. A new spirit of Thai nationalism, not simply Siamese nationalism, spread throughout the nation. In November of 1936 the Siamese government declared that all its treaties with foreign nations were invalid and meaningless. French and British interference in Siamese affairs was soon put to an end. Many territorial claims in Malasia still remain to be settled, however. Perhaps, with war in Europe, the time to strike is at hand. x
PER_39_DESC For nearly two centuries Persia, known to its people as Iran, has been precariously balanced between conflicting forces. Internally the elements of reform and westernization conflict with an increasingly conservative clergy. Internationally Persia was split, in 1907, into a Russian northern sphere and a British south, although it would never be a formal colony of either power. After several attempts at a constitutional monarchy in the first decades of the 20th Century, Persia was thrown into social, political, and economic chaos. Reza Khan, an army officer, finally staged a successful coup against the corrupt Qajar Dynasty in 1921. Though the intent was originally to proclaim a republic, pressure from the conservative clergy (who feared being left out of any republican power structure) convinced now Prime Minister Reza Khan to crown himself Reza Shah Pahlavi. Strongly authoritarian and nationalistic, Reza Shah soon began a vigorous program of industrialization and secular reform, establishing universities, improving infrastructure, establishing public education, laying the foundations for a modern, secular Iranian state. Just as important as modernization and secularizing, however, was his determination that Persia maintain its independence in the face of Soviet expansion and British interests in his country's oil reserves. In 1937 Persia entered into a regional alliance known as the Saadabad Pact along with other neutral countries of the region, namely Turkey, Iraq, and Afghanistan. With the outbreak of hostilities in Europe the new Trans-Iranian railway could be a tempting target for the allies, should the Soviet Union ever be in need of supply. x
CAN_39_DESC Canada saw a quick economic rise through the transcontinental railroad completed in 1890, shipping, industries, and settling in the West. The dominion supoprted Great Britain during the Boer War and Waorld War One, underlining its semi-independent status by signing the Versailles Treaty for themselves in 1919 and by receiving an own seat in the League of Nations. Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King (1921 - 1930, 1935 - 1948) from the Liberals demanded for Canada the conduct of an independent foreign policy on the empire Conference 1923. With the Balfour Declaration on the Empire Cpnference 1926 Canada was granted independence and emancipation within the Commonwealth of Nations. The Westminster Statute 1931 released Canada as an independent state. The Great Depression hit Canada hard after a period of prosperity in the 1920s. The Conservatives rose to power (1930 - 1935) who followed Roosevelt's policiy of the New Deal. In 1934 the Bank of Canada was founded. In 1939 the country joined the war against Germany. x
NIC_39_DESC The liberal President José Santos Zalaya (1894 - 1909), who had pursued a course of modernization of Nicaragua, was overthrown with the help of the U.S.A. who saw their interests in the Panama Canal endangered by Zalaya's expansionist politics. The United States also intervened directly in 1912 in the conflict between conservatives and liberals. Until 1933 the U.S.A. held the military, economic, and political control over the country, with troops stationed till 1932. The resistance led by Augusto César Sandino achieved the withdrawal of the United States in 1932/33, but the country remained under indirect influence by the U.S. Anastasio 'Tacho' Somoza García who took the power after the Americans left was a protégé of Washington and assassinated Sandino in 1934, taking officially the government in 1937. His dictatorship was militarily supported by the National Guard and politically by the Partido Liberal Nacionalista (PLN). There was no serious opposition from the conservatives who were divided into two parties as Somoza ledt the economically dominant oligarchy alone. x
AST_39_DESC The Commonwealth of Australia was formally granted independence on Jan. 1st 1901, joining the British Commonwealth and becoming a staunch ally of Britain. Its fortunes since that time have been mixed, while its economy has grown steadily since independence, it suffered heavy losses during the Great War, suffering the greatest casualties in proportion to total number of troops involved of any of the Allies during the war. Nevertheless, it was through the Great War that the Anzacs (Australian and New Zealand Army Corps) won a reputation for outstanding bravery surpassed by none, serving with distinction in Palestine and Flanders, while forever embedding the peninsula of Gallipoli in Australian folklore. The boom period of the 1920's ended with disaster as the Great Depression ruined Australia's economy and, at its worst, put up to a third of the country's workers out of a job. Yet, despite continued economic problems and a lack of enthusiasm spawned from memories of the Great War, Australia entered the war against Germany on September 3rd 1939 without hesitation. With the world at war again and a new generation ready to fight it, the question remains whether the Anzacs will continue to uphold their reputation as a fighting force equal to any in the world. x
AFG_39_DESC Afghanistan was always a troubled region for the British to maintain control of. An important part of the 'Great Game' between the British Empire and the Russian Czars during the 19th century, every attempt to fully subdue the country ran into fierce resistance. By 1880, however, after the Second Anglo-Afghan war, the emir of Afghanistan finally agreed to allow British control over the country's foreign affairs. But following the Great War, the Afghani emir was assassinated and his son launched yet another war against Britain until the war-weary British agreed to fully withdraw from the country. By 1921 a cease-fire was finally signed granting Afghanistan complete independence. By 1923, a constitution was drawn up and the long process of modernization began....perhaps a bit too quickly. The newly crowned King was deposed by a revolt from Afghani tribesman angry at his attempts to do away with centuries old traditions, forcing him into exile by the end of the 1920's. He was replaced by King Nadir Shah, who kept his continuing reforms to a more acceptable pace. The outbreak of war has affected Afghanistan very little, so far. There is no sign yet of a danger to the country, and if the leaders have their way that will continue. x
MON_39_DESC Stuck between the gigantic empires of Russia and China, the land of Genghis Khan has long had to struggle for it's independence. Though freed from Chinese rule following the collapse of the ruling Manchu dynasty in 1911, Mongolia's independence was not recognized by the new Republic of China, and therefore Mongolia increasingly turned to Russia for it's continued survival. Yet, the unexpected Russian Revolution of 1917 placed Mongolia in a vulnearable position, with the Russian Civil War soon spilling over the border into it's protectorate. After suffering from an invasion by a Chinese warlord army, a counter-invasion by White Russian forces under Baron Roman Nicolaus von Ungern-Sternberg, an uprising by the Mongolian Partisan Army of Sukhe Bator, and finally a coup that toppled the old Monarchy entirely, Mongolia emerged as the second Communist state in the world and the Soviet Union's only ally, though under tight Soviet control. Though finally stable by 1924, Mongolian history was henceforth to reflect all the tragedies that consumed their larger neighbor to the north. Purges were conducted throughout the 1920's to rid the country of 'capitalist' elements, Buddhist monks and religion were actively suppressed, and the power of the old feudal lords was destroyed. By 1939, however, the Socialist revolution is being tuned down in the face of a new threat from an expansionist Japan. The start of fighting between the Japanese Kwangtung Army and the Soviets along the Khalkhyn Gol river in May has dragged Mongolia into the fighting on the side of the Soviets, but the battle now seems to be winding down to a decisive Soviet victory and Japan is retreating to lick its wounds. At present, the country appears to be safe. x
IRQ_39_DESC Iraq is a new nation in the world community. Though it broke free from the Ottoman empire in the wake of that empire's collapse following the Great War, the League of Nations disregarded Britain's promised support of Arab independence and assigned large tracts of the Middle East to European mandates. The result was a costly uprising for the British, and a new plan for Britain's new mandate. The British imposed a monarchy, and prepared for the future independence of Iraq, to be ruled by the Hashemite family. However, the state lacked legitimacy, not only was it imposed from outside of the country, it was clearly a British puppet regime which wrote it's constitution according to British 'advice' and drew it's territorial boundaries according to British wishes (and with little regard to tribal or ethnic frontiers.) Nevertheless, it's willingness to cooperate with Britain meant that it was one of the first mandates to end, being granted full sovereignty in 1932 and joining the League of Nations in October of that same year, as well as being one of the founding members of the League of Arab States. Yet, in 1936, the instability of the old regime led to a military coup d'etat led by General Bakr Sidqi, placing the military forever after on the Iraqi political scene. Sidqi's government was to be short-lived, due to his brutal excesses, and he was murdered by the military in August 1937. In September 1939, Iraq is still facing stability problems, but remains outside of the conflict which has just begun in Europe. Though strongly pro-British as the war begins, the country itself remains neutral. x
NZL_39_DESC New Zealand was granted its dominion status in 1907, and since then has remained linked closely both with it's mother country Britain and it's larger neighbor Australia. In fact, New Zealand's experiences mirrored those of Australia in many ways, New Zealanders served in the ANZAC (Australian and New Zealand Army Corps), and fought with great distinction from Flanders to Gallipoli to Egypt and Turkey. As a result, they took disproportionate casualties for such a small nation, with over 18,000 of an original overseas force of 100,000 killed in action. Nevertheless, they earned a reputation for ferocity in battle which has never faded. By the 1930's, the Great Depression hit New Zealand's economy hard, with export prices plummeting and lay-offs souring. By 1935, despite the best efforts of the National Party to remedy the situation, New Zealand's economy was in shambles and the Labor party was brought to power as a result. Public works projects were started and Farmers were guaranteed a certain minimum price for their goods in an effort to re-stimulate the economy. Yet, the effects of the depression still lingered when war is declared on September 3rd 1939. Though lacking the enthusiasm that characterized it's entry into World War I, New Zealand entered the war on Britain's side at once, the only question now is when the Anzacs will arrive to bolster Britain's war effort. xENG_41_DESC When the British Empire declared war on Germany in September 1939, its people expected the general course of events to go the same way as the Great War twenty years earlier. A small expeditionary force was sent to France, the Royal Navy took up its blockading position athwart Germany's sea lines of communication, and the country awaited the inevitable German assault against the West. Initially, nothing happened. Indeed, for over six months scarcely any fighting took place between the combatant powers, and Britain settled into the welcome leisure of the 'Twilight War'. Then, in May 1940, Germany's surprise Blitzkrieg offensive against France and the Low Countries shattered this unnatural calm for good. British forces were rudely ejected from the European mainland, France fell, and the United Kingdom suddenly found itself alone and facing the possibility of imminent invasion. However, a heroic air defense that summer forestalled Hitler's 'Operation Sealion' attack, and by the spring of 1941 German attentions had switched east. The end of 1941 finds Britain in a difficult situation. The entry of the Soviet Union and the United States into the war has provided desperately needed allies in the struggle against Germany. However, British forces are in peril in North Africa and South East Asia, the U-Boat packs are threatening the UK's vital supply links, and a 'Second Front' in Europe seems years away. Will combined American, British and Soviet power be enough to push back the Axis? x
GER_41_DESC Germany's rapid victory over Poland in September 1939, with the assistance of its temporary Soviet ally, proved the worth of the new 'lightning' armored warfare tactics advanced by innovative military thinkers like Heinz Guderian. During the temporary lull in the fighting, the German High Command adopted an ambitious plan of conquest against France and the Low Countries: instead of beating their heads uselessly against the formidable Maginot defenses or trying a re-run of the 1914 Schlieffen Plan, German forces would break through the weak French positions along the Ardennes forest and attempt a massive encirclement of the northern Anglo-French line. In May 1940 this plan, masterminded by General von Manstein, succeeded beyond anyone's wildest expectations: France surrendered after only six weeks' fighting and the British were forced to evacuate their troops at Dunkirk. This left Germany master of Europe but also left a grand strategic dilemma. The UK was subdued but undefeated, and after the failure of the Luftwaffe in the Battle of Britain no realistic seaborne invasion could be attempted for some time. Instead, Hitler turned his attention eastwards to the USSR, the natural target for his dreams of pan-European 'Lebensraum'. In June 1941 Operation Barbarossa unleashed a whirlwind of destruction against Stalin's dilapidated army, and as winter arrives the Germans now stand at the gates of Moscow. But can they maintain the offensive in the dreadful Russian weather conditions? And will the USA's entry into the war permanently alter the balance of power in the West before the Germans can return victorious from their Soviet conquests? x
ITA_41_DESC Italy has not had a happy war. In June 1940, flushed with confidence after Germany's rapid success against France and Britain in the Ardennes offensive, Mussolini declared war on the West in the hopes of joining in the rich harvest. But despite France's surrender, Italian victories have been frustratingly few. In North and Eastern Africa a series of initial Italian assaults against British colonial territory were vigorously rebuffed, and Mussolini was forced to request German aid. The daring British attack on the fleet at Taranto set back Italy's hopes of challenging the Royal Navy's maritime supremacy in the Mediterranean. And an abortive attack on Greece was thwarted so effectively by the defenders that Germany had to bail out Italy in the Balkans. Now, with German attentions focused almost exclusively on the Eastern Front, Mussolini must decide how he can remove Italy from the shadow of its larger Axis partner and forge a truly independent military strategy. Italy does have some advantages: the British are weak in Africa and could easily be ejected from Egypt with some tactical skill. The difficulty will be acting before the United States can throw in its weight against Italy's small land, sea and air forces. And the conquered Greek and Yugoslavian provinces remain a hotbed of resistance, a constant security burden for the overstretched Italians. x
SOV_41_DESC When Molotov brokered his surprise deal with his German counterpart von Ribbentropp in the summer of 1939, few observers expected the unnatural partnership between the Nazis and the Soviets to last for long. Indeed, Stalin saw the non-aggression treaty as a breathing space which he could use to build up his military forces and expand his territorial buffer zone in Eastern Europe. But while the USSR took over the Baltic States and large parts of Romania without difficulty, Finland's stubborn resistance against overwhelming Russian opposition in the 'Winter War' of 1939-1940 humiliated the Red Army: and Germany's faster-than-expected triumph in France left Stalin's timetable of rearmament lagging dangerously behind. In June 1941 Hitler finally abandoned his distasteful détente with the 'Bolshevik' enemy and attacked the USSR in a massive continent-wide onslaught that left hundreds of thousands of Russian troops surrounded and broken. The Soviets retreated as best they could, doggedly resisting everywhere, but their army was clearly incapable of holding back the initial German torrent. Only the arrival of the September rains and winter snow finally stalled the Wehrmacht. As December arrives, welcome new has come from the Far East: with Japan now engaged against the British and Americans, the Russians can safely transfer their Siberian forces to defend Moscow and spearhead a long-awaited counter-attack. But Russia's position remains critical, and Stalin will need all his reserves of peasant cunning to overcome the crisis. x
JAP_41_DESC Japan saw the outbreak of the European war as an opportunity in the Pacific. While British, French and Dutch attentions were occupied elsewhere, the Japanese might be able to harvest the rich resources of the colonial empires of South East Asia: badly needed resources like rubber and oil could be found in plenty in Malaya, Indo-China, and the East Indies. Only this way, thought the Japanese military elite now ruling the country, would Japan be able to finally end its sluggish battle of attrition in China and assert its predominance across the eastern world. However, the plan had one chief obstacle: the attitude of the United States. The Roosevelt administration was clearly not prepared to countenance any Japanese actions in SE Asia without a fight, as it proved in 1941 when America embargoed sales of oil in protest at Japan's takeover of Vichy French territory in Vietnam and Cambodia. Only by removing the American military threat, concluded the generals, could Japan be free to act. To this end Japan's most formidable strategic planner, Admiral Yamamoto, forged a scheme to attack the US Pacific Fleet at its Pearl Harbor base, and so damage American confidence that the country would be bound to sue for peace. This attack took place a few days ago, and all reports indicate its almost complete tactical success: but now, with Japanese troops poised to cross enemy borders across Asia, the question remains. Will Japan's great gamble against the overwhelming industrial power of America pay off? x
USA_41_DESC Few countries were less keen on entering the general European war than the United States in 1939. Two decades of isolationism had confirmed the population's broad belief that British French and German events were none of their affair: and even the shocking Nazi successes in the summer of 1940 only stirred a minority into demanding more aid for the democratic West. President Roosevelt eager to assist the British in their fight against Hitler but hamstrung by his country's unwillingness to become too involved used a number of ingenious ploys to get practical assistance such as 'Lend-Lease' to the UK: and in readiness for a possible American intervention in the future he began the build-up of the United States' modest and poorly equipped military forces. Throughout 1941 tensions in the North Atlantic over attacks on American naval vessels escorting Allied merchantmen pushed the US and Germany further towards the brink. When the decisive moment came however it was on the other side of the globe and from a very different enemy. Japan's surprise attack on the Pacific fleet at Pearl Harbour stunned America and although the damage done to American arms was ultimately not that severe the psychological blow it dealt to US self-assurance was devastating. Germany's equally surprise declaration of war a few days later confirmed America's place in the now-global war. President Roosevelt's immediate task is to prop up Allied defences in the threatened SE Asian theatre while getting as much aid to the beleaguered Russians and British as possible and at the same time creating a mighty American war machine that can intervene decisively both in Europe and across the Pacific. x
SCH_41_DESC The Swiss Confederation saw crisis in 19th century. In several cantons liberal powers prevailed, calling for more democracy and more centralism. This met the opposition of the catholic, conservatively dominated cantons who formed the Sonderbund in 1845. The Sonderbund War erupted in 1847 which saw the liberals as victors. In 1848 a Federal Constitution was ratified, turning the loose league of cantons into a Federal Stae with a new federal capital in Bern. The new constitution created new institutions like the (Bundesrat) Federal Council, Bundesversammlung (Federal Assebly), and Bundesgericht (Federal Court). Switzerland remained neutral during World War I, although there were various domestic conflicts between German and French speaking Swiss citizens. In addition economical problems arose, completely surrounded as the country was by warring nations. The radical left gained a lot of support during that time, and in 1918 a strike called for by the workers movement attempted to push through major social changes. The attempt failed, but in its wake social reforms were begun, bringing about higher wages and shorter work days. In 1919 the system of proportional representation was introduced. The conservative Freisinnige lost their majority while the social democrats grew stronger. Into the 1930s the domestic politics were governed by the conflict between social democrats and conservatives. Switzerland joined the LEague of Nations in 1920 despite the resistance efforts by conservatives and Swiss friendly towards Germany. The integral, unconditional neutrality was replaced by the differentiating neutrality. The London Declaration permitted Switzerland to deny the support of military sanctions. In 1938, however, the country returned to the integral neutrality. The country, bordering Nazi Germany in the North and Fascist Italy in the South feared conflict with her neigbours. The political parties countered the threat of National Socialism and Fascism with a broad alliance for the 'spiritual country defense'. x
FIN_41_DESC With the demise of the Russian Czar's powers Finland, having been under her Eastern neighbour's rule since 1808, was granted more autonomy. In 1906 a monocameral parliament was installed along with universal suffrage for men and women alike. The parliament, the first in Europe to have a Social Democratic majority since 1916, exploited Russia's weakness after the February Revolution of 1917 and declared Finland's independence in July of the same year. The declaration of the right of self-determination proclaimed by the new Soviet government during the October Revolution strengthened the Finnish claim for independence. On December 6th, 1917, the proclamation of sovereignty was reoeated and acknowledged by the Soviet rulers in late December. An attempt of Finnish Socialists to seize power in early 1918 caused a bloody civil war in which the White Guards, supported by the German Kaiser, prevailed over the Socialist's Red Guards. After the defeat a Communist Party seperated from the Social Democrats and was declared illegal in 1930 after numerous attempts of insurgence. In 1921 Finland reached its largest expansion when the League of Nations declared the Aland islands Finnish territory. In 1932 the country signed a non-aggression pact with the USSR. The secret protocol of the Ribbentrop-Molotov Pact from August 1939 declared Finland to be a sphere of interest of the Soviet Union. In November 1939 Stalin launched the Winter War to secure territory for the erection of fortresses to secure Leningrad. Finland held out till 1940, letting the USSR appear as a weak military power before the world. In March 1940, however, Finland agreed to peace talks to avoid engagements of British and French against the Soviets on her soil. The Soviets received parts of Karelia and Eastern Finland, the shores of Lake Ladoga and Hanko. In Fall of 1940 German troops landed in Finland and in 1941 the country joined Nazi Germany in their war against the USSR, hoping to claim back their lost territories. x
SPA_41_DESC The Spanish confidence was badly shaken after the war against the U.S.A. in which the colonies of Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam were lost. Seperatist movements like those of the Basques or the Catalans gained support, the church interfered in politics, and a radical workers movement destabalized the balance between conservatives and liberals. After taking the governmentin 1902 Alfons XIII showed expansionist tendencies as demonstrated by the intervention in Morocco.. The Algeciras Act of 1906 did acknowledge Spanish interests in Morocco, institutionalized by a protectorate over the north and south of the African country in 1912, but it became a source of permanent unrest. During World War 1 Spain remained neutral. After 1918 the social tensions erupted in a number of revolts by the rural populace and right wing as well as anarchistic factions. Alfons XIII supported the military coup against the government by General Miguel Primo de Rivera who abolished the constitution of 1876 and installed a dictatorial rule between 1923 and 1930. He ended the uprising in Morocco with a victory over Abd el-Krim in 1926, but could not master the economic crisis and had to resign after repeated revolts by the military and students. In 1931 Alfons XIII also abdicated and allowed the Liberal Conservative Niceto Alcalá Zamora y Torres the proclamation of the Second Republic. The republic, however, could not overcome the deep rift between the factions of the Spanish society, reaching from fascist Falangists to monarchists, conservative liberals, left liberals, socialists, communists and Anarcho-Syndicalists. And so, in 1936 the shadow of civil war loom over the Iberian country. The differences eventually led to the Spanish Civil War which erupted in 1936. The National Front went into armed conflict against the elected People's Front government. Francisco Franco y Bahamondeled the National Front and united the catholic traditionalists and the Falangists with his faction. In 1939 Franco achieved - supported militarily by both Germany and Italy - victory over the People's Front who had been favored by the USSR and Mexico and who had signed up the aid of the International Brigades of Republicans, Socialists, and Communists from all over the world. After the victory Franco established an authoritarian regime with a constitution patterned for him as 'Caudillo' (leader). The Falange movement became the party to secure his domestic power. Despite advances from Hitler, Franco declined all offers for an alliance with the Axis during the war and only detached the Blue Division of volunteers to the campaign in Russia. x
HUN_41_DESC Following closely after the armistice of November 1918 a democratic national council under Prime Minister Mihály Count Károlyi declared Hungary an independent republic. The neighboring countries, especially Romania and the new Kingdom of Serbs, Slovenes, and Croats, seized the opportunity for territorial conquests. Domestic disputes about the future design of the republic forced the government Károlyi to resign, and the Socialist Party of Hungary, a coalition of Communists and Social Democrats, took power. Under the leadership of Béla Kun a council republic was established. Their attempts at forced social reforms soon led to violent conflicts, however. With the aid of Czech and Romanian troops the forces of restoration managed to crush the republic within a matter of months, at first leading to 'white terror', costing the lives of many suporters of the political left. The situation remained unclear. After the 1920 elections a constitution containing both autoicratic and parliamentary elements was ratified. The question of whether or not the last Habsburg, Karl IV, was to become KIng of Hungary was solved with a compromise. An administrator was appointed instead of a monarch, with former navy admiral Miklós Horthy heeding the call. In the peace treaty of Trianon 1920 Hungary acknowledged formally many territorial claims: the Czechoslovakian for Slovakia, the Romanian for Siebenbürgen, and the Yugoslavian for Croatia and Slovenia. Hungary had lost 70 percent of her territory and 65 percent of her population. Two coup attempts in 1921 to bring Karl IV onto the throne failed while Horthy exploited his position for taking power from the parliament and persecuting democratic forces. To the Great Depression and the social tensions accompanying it Horthy reacted by appointing the ultra conservative Gyula Hömbös as prime minister (1932 - 1936) who would conduct the conducted Hungary's rapprochement towards Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. The dreams of a 'Greater Hungary' were hardly fulfilled. The Munich Treaty 1938 brought no advantages and the later agreement between Germany and Italy were only minor revisions. Only after the dissolution of Czechoslovakia in 1939 did Hungary achieve minor expansion. In 1940 Hungary joined the Three Powers Pact and in 1941 Honvéd troops participated in the attack on Yugoslavia and later in the assault on the Soviet Union. The country was by then less more than a German puppet, tied into Hitler's war production and effort. xROM_41_DESC In the Peace of Paris, concluding the Crimean War (1853 - 1856), the unification of Moldavia and Walachia into the Principality Romania was decided. Ioan Alexandru Cuza became the first Prince (1859 - 1866), to be followed onto the throne by Karl von Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. (1866 - 1914). After the 8th Russian-Turkish War 1877/78, which saw Romania fighting alongside Russia, the country's sovereignty was recognized on the Berlin Congress 1878. Southern Bessarabia was ceded to Russia, while Romania gained Dobrudja. In 1881 the Romanian Prince took the title of King Karl I. The orientation towards the West was secured, Russian influence lost its appeal. Karl I settled the Second Balkans War (1913) and joined the Calibrater with Dobrudja. His successor Ferdinand (1914 - 1927) became King of All Romanians. With the outbreak of World War One in 1914 Romania initially remained neutral, but would join the Entente in 1916. The Middle Powers were unable to occupy the country and signed the peace of Bucharest in 1918. With the collapse of the Habsburg and Romanov monarchies saved Romania the ratification of that peace treaty. Romanians in Transsylvania and Bukovina decided on their unification with the Romanian state, an act that was internationally recognized in the Paris Peace Treaties of 1920. Their political ties to the West, however, were thwarted by the state's behavior. After the death of King Ferdinand I, six year old Michael I, whose father Karl II had given up his royal heritage because of an affair with the commoner Elena Lupescu, rose to the throne. In 1930, nevertheless, Karl II returned from Paris to climb the throne. He reigned until 1940 when, as a consequence of the Hitler-Stalin Pact and the Vienna Arbitration, Northwestern Transsylvania went to Hungary, the Northern Bukovina and Bessarabia to Russia, and Southern Dobrudja to Bulgaria. Michael I returned to the throne, but the government appointed General Ion Antonescu as State Leader. In 1941 Romania joined the German attack against the Soviet Union, her troops driving into the Bukovina and Bessarabia. x
BUL_41_DESC After the preliminary peace of San Stefano in the 8th Russian-Turkish War 1877/78, the newly formed national state of Bulgaria included Macedonia to the Ochrid Lake and a coastal strip on the Aegean Sea. The Berlin Congress 1878, however, limited the country's terriory to the region between Danube and Balkans. Macedonia and Eastern Rumelia remained with the Ottoman Empire. Russia, interested in controlling Bulgaria, watched the successes of Prince Alexander I (annexion of Eastern Rumelia in 1885 and the victory over Serbia in 1885/86) with distrust. They forced Alexander I to abdicate after a coup led by pro-Russian officers. His successor became Ferdinand of Saxony-Coburg-Gotha. He achieved the formal independence from the Ottomans and was crwned Czar in 1908. With the idea of a Greater Bulgaria as a vision the country became the driving force in the Balkans League and carried the main burden in the First Balkans War (1912/13). Bulgaria suffered defeat from a coalition of Greece, Serbia, Montenegro, Romania, and the Ottoman Empire during the Second Balkans War 1913 in which Bulgaria had planned to devour parts of the Balkans now free from the Turks. In the peace of Bucharest, they lostlarge parts of the gains from the First Balkans War - Southern Dobrudja went to Romania, and Adrianople went to the Ottomans. Of Macedonia which Bulgaria had demanded as a whole they only managed to hold onto a small strip in the Pirin Mountains, the rest was parted between Serbia and Greece. In 1915 Bulgaria joined the Middle Powers and occupied the territories she sought to take for herself. After the Entente's victory the country lost its conquests in the Peace of Neuilly 1919, plus the access to the Aegean Sea as Greece was awarded Southern Thrace. Ferdinand I abdiacted in 1918 in favor of his son Boris III. Prime Minister Alexander Stambuliski (1919 - 1923), leader of the radical Farmers' Party enacted a land reform and supported the Balkans Federation until he was killed in a military coup in 1923. After a Communist uprise that party was banned, Georgi Dimitrow went into exile in the Soviet Union. In 1940 Bulgaria received the Southern Dobrudja back through aid of Hitler. In 1941 Germany was permitted to march its troops through Bulgaria on their way to the invasion of Yugoslavia. They were granted official rule of Thrace and Macedonia, and later that year, they would declare war on Great Britain and the U.S.A., but not on the USSR.
TUR_41_DESC That changed, however, when in October 1939 a mutual assistance pact was signed with France and England which would spoil the friendly relations to the Soviet Union forever. When France was occupied in 1940 and Italy joined the war Turkey decided to stay neutral. In 1941 Hitler had conquered the Balkans and the agreement of Ankara to remain neutral secured Hitler's attack on the Soviet Union on that front. In June 1941 the non-aggression pact between Turkey and Germany was signed. x
BRA_41_DESC After slavery was abolished in 1888, the republicans gained much support from all parts of the Brazilian Empire. In 1889 the revolt began with a revolt of the military garrison and ended with the declaration of the Republic of Brazil. The 1891 constitution was patterned after the U.S. constitution, granting considerable autonomies to the respective provinces. Under the first elected presidents the domestic situation stabilized, but Brazil got into the cycle of economic crisis - Sugar Crisis 1890, Coffee Crisis 1896, end of the rubber boom 1913. Meanwhile, Brazil's foreign minister, Baron Do Rio Branco extended the Brazilian territory through a series of treaties with British-Guyana, Columbia, Bolivia, Peru, and Uruguay the country's territory by over 250,000 square miles. Growing industries and a high influx of immigrants led to a strong industrial proletariat, changing the society of Brazil. The flourishing exports after World War One came to an end with the Great Depression of 1929/30, especially when the prices for coffee and rubber plummeted. A movement of social reformist officers called 'Tenentismo' took advantage of the situation, supporting the revolution of Getúlio Dornelles Vargas who established an authoritarian rule with strong presidential powers and highly reduced autonomies of the federal states, turning Brazil into a dictatorship by and by. In 1937 he proclaimed the 'Estado Nuovo', disbanding the congress and banning all parties. Looking at the richness with natural industries, Vargas began focusing on the development of heavy industry, aided by the U.S.A. Even though Vargas restricted the influence of big landowners and pushed through social reforms which improved the situation of the poorer of his subjects the social classes remained the same. x
SIA_41_DESC Until 1932 Siam had been an absolute monarchy. An attempted coup then sent the nation into spasms of revolution, counter-revolution, and coup d'etat. Though still technically a monarchy, by 1936 Siam was ruled by a triumvirate consisting of the prime minister (Phya Bahol Sena), the minister of defense (Col. Luang Phibun Songgram), and the foreign minister (Luang Pradit). Indeed, the young king, Ananda Mahidol, did not even visit his country until 1938, despite being crowned in 1935. One of the primary goals of this new constitutional monarchy was to establish Siamese autonomy over both its internal and external affairs. A new spirit of Thai nationalism, not simply Siamese nationalism, spread throughout the nation. In November of 1936 the Siamese government declared that all its treaties with foreign nations were invalid and meaningless. French and British interference in Siamese affairs was soon put to an end. Many territorial claims in Malaysia still remained to be settled, however. With France brought to its knees by Germany, Siam would use Japanese mediation to regain territory which had been ceded to France in 1893, including western Cambodia and all of Laos west of the Mekong River. Just hours after the attack on Pearl Harbor, Siam granted Japan the right to cross through the country on their way to the Malaysian frontier. Siam was now, effectively, an ally of the Japanese Empire, a fact that would be made official in a matter of weeks. x
CAN_41_DESC Canada saw a quick economic rise through the transcontinental railroad completed in 1890, shipping, industries, and settling in the West. The dominion supoprted Great Britain during the Boer War and Waorld War One, underlining its semi-independent status by signing the Versailles Treaty for themselves in 1919 and by receiving an own seat in the League of Nations. Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King (1921 - 1930, 1935 - 1948) from the Liberals demanded for Canada the conduct of an independent foreign policy on the empire Conference 1923. With the Balfour Declaration on the Empire Cpnference 1926 Canada was granted independence and emancipation within the Commonwealth of Nations. The Westminster Statute 1931 released Canada as an independent state. The Great Depression hit Canada hard after a period of prosperity in the 1920s. The Conservatives rose to power (1930 - 1935) who followed Roosevelt's policiy of the New Deal. In 1934 the Bank of Canada was founded. In 1939 the country joined the war against Germany and later against Japan. x
NIC_41_DESC The liberal President José Santos Zalaya (1894 - 1909), who had pursued a course of modernization of Nicaragua, was overthrown with the help of the U.S.A. who saw their interests in the Panama Canal endangered by Zalaya's expansionist politics. The United States also intervened directly in 1912 in the conflict between conservatives and liberals. Until 1933 the U.S.A. held the military, economic, and political control over the country, with troops stationed till 1932. The resistance led by Augusto César Sandino achieved the withdrawal of the United States in 1932/33, but the country remained under indirect influence by the U.S. Anastasio 'Tacho' Somoza García who took the power after the Americans left was a protégé of Washington and assassinated Sandino in 1934, taking officially the government in 1937. His dictatorship was militarily supported by the National Guard and politically by the Partido Liberal Nacionalista (PLN). There was no serious opposition from the conservatives who were divided into two parties as Somoza ledt the economically dominant oligarchy alone. x
AST_41_DESC By December 1941, Australia has been at war for over two years, and Australians have fought in first Greece, then Crete, and finally North Africa alongside their Commonwealth allies, where the Anzacs are currently battling Erwin Rommel's Afrika Korps. Yet, with the attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7th and the following Japanese push for expansion into the south Pacific, Australia seems to be in a difficult position. If the Japanese attacks are successful, the Australian mainland could be in danger for the first time in the war, and at the moment Japan's strike south is going very well, with the first obstacles being overcome on the Malayan peninsula and Britain's navy in the Far East effectively crippled with the loss of HMS Prince of Wales and HMS Repulse to Japanese bombers. Australia's critical hour appears to be upon her, and the question of withdrawing troops from North Africa to bolster the mainland's defence is thus being seriously considered. x
AFG_41_DESC Afghanistan was always a troubled region for the British to maintain control of. An important part of the 'Great Game' between the British Empire and the Russian Czars during the 19th century, every attempt to fully subdue the country ran into fierce resistance. By 1880, however, after the Second Anglo-Afghan war, the emir of Afghanistan finally agreed to allow British control over the country's foreign affairs. But following the Great War, the Afghani emir was assassinated and his son launched yet another war against Britain until the war-weary British agreed to fully withdraw from the country. By 1921 a cease-fire was finally signed granting Afghanistan complete independence. By 1923, a constitution was drawn up and the long process of modernization began....perhaps a bit too quickly. The newly crowned King was deposed by a revolt from Afghani tribesman angry at his attempts to do away with centuries old traditions, forcing him into exile by the end of the 1920's. He was replaced by King Nadir Shah, who kept his continuing reforms to a more acceptable pace. The outbreak of war has affected Afghanistan very little, so far. There is no sign yet of a danger to the country, and if the leaders have their way that will continue. x
MON_41_DESC Stuck between the gigantic empires of Russia and China, the land of Genghis Khan has long had to struggle for it's independence. Though freed from Chinese rule following the collapse of the ruling Manchu dynasty in 1911, Mongolia's independence was not recognized by the new Republic of China, and therefore Mongolia increasingly turned to Russia for it's continued survival. Yet, the unexpected Russian Revolution of 1917 placed Mongolia in a vulnearable position, with the Russian Civil War soon spilling over the border into it's protectorate. After suffering from an invasion by a Chinese warlord army, a counter-invasion by White Russian forces under Baron Roman Nicolaus von Ungern-Sternberg, an uprising by the Mongolian Partisan Army of Sukhe Bator, and finally a coup that toppled the old Monarchy entirely, Mongolia emerged as the second Communist state in the world and the Soviet Union's only ally, though under tight Soviet control. Though finally stable by 1924, Mongolian history was henceforth to reflect all the tragedies that consumed their larger neighbor to the north. Purges were conducted throughout the 1920's to rid the country of 'capitalist' elements, Buddhist monks and religion were actively suppressed, and the power of the old feudal lords was destroyed. By the late 1930's, however, the Socialist revolution was being tuned down in the face of a new threat from an expansionist Japan. While defeated at Khalkhyn Gol, the Japanese remainded defiant. Their newly launched campaign into the South Pacific leaves room for hope that Mongolia might remain neutral in the war raging around it, but the precarious state of the Soviet Union by late 1941 leaves little room for optimism. Should the Soviet Union fall, it's very likely Mongolia will fall as well without it's protector. x
IRQ_41_DESC Iraq is a new nation in the world community. Though it broke free from the Ottoman empire in the wake of that empire's collapse following the Great War, the League of Nations disregarded Britain's promised support of Arab independence and assigned large tracts of the Middle East to European mandates. The result was a costly uprising for the British, and a new plan for Britain's new mandate. The British imposed a monarchy, and prepared for the future independence of Iraq, to be ruled by the Hashemite family. However, the state lacked legitimacy, not only was it imposed from outside of the country, it was clearly a British puppet regime which wrote it's constitution according to British 'advice' and drew it's territorial boundaries according to British wishes (and with little regard to tribal or ethnic frontiers.) Nevertheless, it's willingness to cooperate with Britain meant that it was one of the first mandates to end, being granted full sovereignty in 1932 and joining the League of Nations in October of that same year, as well as being one of the founding members of the League of Arab States. Yet, in 1936, the instability of the old regime led to a military coup d'etat led by General Bakr Sidqi, placing the military forever after on the Iraqi political scene. Sidqi's government was to be short-lived, due to his brutal excesses, and he was murdered by the military in August 1937. Yet, Iraq's stabilities problems were not over, an Anglophobic Arab nationalist by the name of Rashid Ali Al-Gaylani became prime minister in 1941, and promptly tried to curtail Britain's continued domination of the region by seeking aid from Germany. When ministers still loyal to the British pressed him to resign, yet another coup d'etat was organized, with Al-Gaylani supported by four pro-Axis generals known as the 'Golden Square.' It didn't take Britain long to react, and the short-lived Al-Gaylani regime was toppled within a month by the arrival of British troops, sending Al-Gaylani to exile in Germany. By the end of 1941, Iraq is firmly under British control. x
NZL_41_DESC By 1941, the soldiers of New Zealand have fought alongside their Australian comrades throughout the Mediterranean, first facing defeat in Greece and Creek, then a brief taste of victory in North Africa, followed by more defeat at the hands of Erwin Rommel's Afrika Korps. The Anzacs have fought bravely, but the German army has so far outfought and outmaneuvered the soldiers of the British Commonwealth, and now they must find adapt if they are to turn the tide of the war. The entry of Japan into the conflict has put a new spin on New Zealand's war, for the first time, the island nation is itself threatened with potential invasion, should Japan's campaign succeed in pushing the Allies back through the South Pacific. With the sinking of Force Z, Britain's navy strength is crippled, and so far the Japanese have made stunningly rapid advances down the Malayan peninsula. Whatever the troubles of Europe may have been previously, New Zealand may be about to discover that this is indeed a world at war.... x
SAF_41_DESC For thousands of years South Africa has been populated by two distinct cultural groups: the hunter gatherer San (Bushmen) and the agrarian Khoikhoi (Hottentots). These communities were irretrievably shattered by the arrival, in 1652, of Dutch bases on the cape, which were quickly followed by settlements. The Khoikhoi were soon reduced to forced labor for the settlers and for the Dutch East India Company, with rights often much less than that of slaves in the Americas. After the British took control of the colony during the Napoleonic Wars several attempts were made to alleviate the plight of the Khoikhoi, with limited success. Either way the liberal policies of the British led to large numbers of Dutch Voortrekkers to head north and establish their own republics on still more Khoikhoi land. The interior of South Africa would remain largely unsettled by whites, however, well into the 19th century. This would all change upon the discovery of vast diamond and gold deposits in the area. The influx of British prospectors would soon lead to increasingly violent confrontations between British colonials and Boer Republicans. The period also saw the final, violent repressions of the last remaining free chiefdoms in South Africa. An attempt at a federal system incorporating both the colonies and the Boer republics was shattered by a Boer victory over the British at Majuba in 1881. The resulting Anglo-Boer War, which raged from 1899-1902, would lead to an annexation of the Boer republics. The Boers, however, would win the peace, creating a constitution that ensured the retention of white-only rule in South Africa. White Afrikaners still, however, held a great deal of resentment towards the British Empire. The British Government would even have to suppress a minor revolt in opposition to war against Germany in 1914. Though an agreement was made with the Crown in 1926 which ensured that South Africa would remain part of the Commonwealth, a great deal of the population still opposed this measure. Upon the outbreak of war in 1939, Prime Minister JBM Hertzog tried unsuccessfully to keep South Africa neutral. The nationalistic opposition to the war, headed by Dr DF Malan, has been steadily growing since South Africa's entry, though so far they have kept the movement nonviolent and purely political. x
C'est ce que j'allais dire...JP said:Juste une info : regarde dans le fichier français text.csv du patch 1.06, je crois que ces textes dont déjà traduits (j'y ai pensé après).
ENG_41_DESC;Lorsque la Grande-Bretagne déclare la guerre à l’Allemagne en septembre 1939 la population britannique s’attend à ce que les évènements se déroulent de la même façon que vingt ans auparavant. Un corps expéditionnaire minimal est envoyé en France la marine nationale reprend ses positions de blocus en travers des lignes de communication maritime allemandes et attendent l’attaque contre les pays de l’Ouest. Dans un premier temps c’est le calme plat... En effet plus de six mois passent sans que les combats ne débutent véritablement entre puissances rivales. La Grande-Bretagne entre alors dans la période de la “drôle de guerre”. Finalement l’Allemagne interrompt le calme apparent en lançant la première attaque de la Blitzkrieg contre la France et les Pays-Bas en mai 1940. Les forces britanniques sont violemment chassées du continent européen la France cède devant l’ennemi allemand laissant la Grande-Bretagne seule face à l’envahisseur potentiel. Au cours de l’été 1940 une défense aérienne exceptionnelle devance toutefois l’opération Lion de mer prévue par Hitler faisant ainsi basculer les attaques allemandes vers l’Est dès le printemps 1941. A la fin de l‘année 1941 la Grande-Bretagne se trouve à nouveau dans une situation délicate mais elle reçoit alors le soutien indispensable de deux nouveaux alliés*: l’URSS et les Etats-Unis. Les forces britanniques sont également menacées en Afrique du Nord et en Asie du Sud-Est par des groupes de sous-marins qui risquent de bloquer les chaînes d’approvisionnement britanniques. L’ouverture d’un “second front” européen semble toujours très lointain. L’alliance des forces américaines britanniques et soviétiques suffira-t-elle à repousser les forces de l’Axe*?;;;;;;;;;;X