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Why aren't you taking more provinces?

Game mechanics. I had 100% warscore. The AI doesn`t accept peace conditions beyond that value. Hippo Regius was already worth 42ish %. All three together were 89% and unfortunately there was no province with less than 20%. As soon as I seize Tripolitania I will get 4 (5 if I`m extremely lucky) provinces per war, but that`s it.

EDIT:

It would pe perfect, if the Carthaginian populists would start a civil war right now, so I could grab some provinces without having to wait for the truce to expire.
 
Egypt not abusing the situation?

Selfquote:

The East is difficult, because the AI is a bit weird. There is a two-province-minor: Osroene. Egypt and Seleucia are allied and declared war. And for decades now Egypt occupies one province and Seleucia the other, but no peace is signed. And as long there is no peace, they don`t start a new war. The same goes for Colchis (occupied by Macedonia/Pontus).

Hopefully there will be some unrest, since their Stability is down the drain due to the long wars. Seleucia already lost lots of Provinces in Parthia due to independence movements.

I`ll have time to play today so maybe something will change, but I`m not holding my breath. I can almost imagine how Egypt/Seleucia send peace proposals (Demand annexation) to Osroene, who denies them. Month for month for month for...
 
Chapter XXXIV - The minor migration period (154 - 73 BC)

A. Situation along the Rhine-Danube-border (154 - 74 BC)

As been said, the roman Limites along Rhine and Danube had several purposes. First of all it was indeed a border. Hundreds of watchtowers along the rivers monitored the area on the other side of the border. Since these towers were build in sight distance, they could also transmit light signals(174).

Another important intention was to control the border traffic to and from the territories beyond the border. "Barbaric" merchants as well as Romans, who dared to enter Germania, Pannonia or Dacia were valuable sources for information about events and potential threats.

Finally we may assume, that these Limites had a role as deterrent. The pure existence of a border fortification as well as Rome`s ability to build, maintain and defend it probably gave any potential aggressor something to think about.

All in all one can say, that the Limites worked. During the eight decades after their completion, there are just few reports about border violations. Usually these were fast raids by small groups in order to plunder something and retreat across the river as fast as possible. We have only one report about larger forces crossing the border, when a branch of the Chatti(175) crossed the headwater of the Danube in 125 BC.

B. Causes and effects of the minor migration period

During the early 1st Century BC, the tribes in east and east-central Europe experienced an era of migration. Cause for this was the expansion of the Rhoxolani empire. The Rhoxolani were Sarmatian horse people, who settled in the steppe of the southern Ukraine since the 6th Century BC. During the next centuries they established a stable realm, to finally expand to the west and northwest during the 2nd Century BC.

This expansion lead to the migration of the defeated tribes. Finally most tribes from the Ukraine to the east to Hungary in the west were affected. A fact, that caused the designation "minor migration period".

In 73 BC, the effects of these migrations reached the Republic, when the whole tribe of the Batavi(176) crossed the Danube somewhere between today`s Vienna and Bratislava. They marched southeast and plundered Noreia(177), before they advanced towards the Adriatic Sea, where they captured Aquileia(178).

This was probably the greatest threat to northern Italy since the barbaric invasion in the 3rd Century BC. The III. Legion was immediately dispatched to pursue the Batavi and was put under the command of Caelus Fabius Gurges(179). He came too late to prevent the sacking of Aquileia, but forced the Batavi to retreat northeast after a small skirmish. In Pannonia, their way was blocked by the I. Legion. The Batavi were trapped and forced to try fighting their way through the I. Legion while keeping the III. Legion at distance.

This plan was not to succeed. In a vast battle, the main force of the Batavi pushed against the shields of the I. Legion but were repulsed and finally forced to flee. On the other side of the battlefield, the III. Legion annihilated the Batavian rearguard. Finally both Legions advanced toward the Batavian wagon fort, took it by storm and allegedly killed everyone they found as cautionary tale for other tribes.

It is hard to estimate the amount of victims. Sempronius writes about "more than 50.000" people, but refers to male adults only. Modern estimations of the total amount of migrating Batavians vary between 150.000 to 250.000 people. Although Sempronius reports, that thousands of Batavi were killed during the battle or committed suicide, when the Romans approached the wagon fort, where they killed the survivors, we may assume, that nevertheless thousands were taken as slaves.

The invasion of the Batavi was a sign for the things to come in later centuries. The Limites were a demonstration of Rome`s power and a deterrence for barbaric tribes. But as soon as this deterrence didn`t work, the safety of the Republic depended on its real power to deal with massive threats.


(174) This does not apply at bad weather, when probably horn signals were used.
(175) A tribe, that settled along the rivers Fulda, Lahn and Eder in today`s state of Hesse (german: Hessen), whose name probably derived from the tribe name (german: Chatten).
(176) Another obviously wrong designation, since the Batavi settled around today`s Nijmwegen. Maybe roman authors confused them with the Bastarnae.
(177) The location of this city is still heavily disputed, although most archaeologists believe it to be somewhere in Styria. Findings near the village of St. Margarethen in Carinthia in 1929 were misdated and of medieval origin.
(178) During the migration period of the 5th Century AD the city was once again burned down by the Huns. Today, Aquileia has about 3.500 citizens.
(179) Who must have been in his late 70s at that time.
 
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Wagon fort?
When were these historically discovered?
I remember the Hussites using them well.

I mean to remember, that the Cimbri and Teutons used something similar as a last bastion in the battles of Aquae Sextiae (102 BC) and Vercellae (101 BC).
 
Chapter XXXV - The "Old men`s war" (72 - 71 BC)

A. Protagonists

"Implevit quidem annum septimum et sexagensimum, quae aetas etiam robustissimis satis longa est."(180)

Although the calculation of a general life expectancy in ancient Rome will stay an insoluble problem(181), it is remarkable, that the three main characters in the 5th Punic War were old men even by modern western standards, thus the common nickname "Old men`s war" is well deserved.

The first person is Consul Marcus Fabius Livinus, who was in his late 70s in 72 BC. Fabius`s career was uncommon. First off, because he belonged to the populists, who usually were kept away from the more influential positions within the Republic by the more conservative political establishment. Secondly because he had, unlike most others of his faction, a clear stance supporting warfare. He served as Naval Prefect during the Greek War. His first term as Consul (101-99 BC) was rather unremarkable. Then he was Legate during the 3rd Punic War and was granted a Triumph for his successes in North Africa. Finally he was one of the few Senators who managed to get elected as Consul for a second term. We don`t know, what caused him to begin the 5th Punic War, but considering that he held probably the largest estates in North Africa of all Senators, we may assume pure self-interest.

The youngest partner in this trio was Marcus Tiberius Brutus, the long-term Governor in southern Iberia and North Africa, who was 68 years old at the outbreak of the war. He was probably the one with the biggest incentive to enlarge roman holdings in North Africa. Since five years he was the Governor of the newly established Region of Numidia, that consisted of the area around Hippo Regius only. And it is likely, that he didn`t want to end his career as Governor of such a small demesne, although he already was one of the most wealthy people in the Republic.

The third character is Caelius Fabius Gurges. Sempronius reports, that he completed his 80th year during the campaign and was already his own monument. He had always supported the wars against Carthage in order to destroy the only serious competitor in trade in the Mediterranean.

B. Progress

According to Sempronius, Carthage must have recovered fast from the outcome of the 4th Punic War and build up a strong army again(182). The Republic send the same seven Legions to North Africa as in the last war, and in a certain way the 5th Punic War was a repetition of its predecessor.

Rome took the initiative, and after two months Taladusii, Massaesyli and Thapsus were under roman control. During the next weeks, Manius Tiberius and Caelius Fabius tried to separate the Carthaginian armies, but couldn`t achieve it. Meanwhile a smaller Punic force recaptured Thapsus.

Sometime in May 72 BC, Carthage threatened Hippo Regius and the roman Commanders united their forces. In the battle of Hippo Regius, four roman Legions faced the main army of Carthage(183). The battle showed, that Carthage could field a strong force in terms of numbers, but couldn`t cope with their opponents in terms of tactics and discipline. The Punic commander chose a location in hilly terrain, thus wasting the potential of his cavalry and exposing his infantry to the clash with the heavy roman Legionaries. At the end of the day, around 15.000 Carthaginians were dead, while Rome had about 2.000 casualties.

The battle of Hippo Regius decided the war. Carthages army retreated and Caelus Fabius had to pursue it through whole Tripolitania, before he finally destroyed the remnants in late 72 BC. Among the captured Carthaginians were the two commanders Bostar and Mago. Caelus Fabius let them crucify instantaneously(184).

Until the middle of 71 BC, Rome had occupied most Carthaginian territories and urged the Carthaginian Senate to sign a peace treaty. Shortly after, Carthage ceded Thapsus, Massaesyli and Taladusii to Rome.

Carthage71.png
Fig. 38: Carthage after the 5th Punic War​

C. Result

After only one and a half year, Carthage was once again completely defeated and his territory did further shrunk. After all, Carthage got off cheaply, since Rome did not occupy its whole territory, but the roman Senate had to finally deal with the latest events in Asia Minor. But although this saved some of the Carthaginian territory for the moment, it was merely a short breathing pause on the road to dissolution.


(180) "He completed the 67th year however, which age is long enough even for very healthy (people)"; Pliny the Younger (61-112 AD)
(181) There was probably a significant difference between the common citizen and the upper class. We may assume a considerable high infant mortality due to lack of hygiene and malnutrition. Although these numbers are not representative, 80% of the epitaphs found in Ostia described people of age 30 or lower. Among the Senatorial ranks, who enjoyed better healthcare and housing, the life expectancy was probably higher.
(182) Estimations of the Carthaginian force are up to 100.000 soldiers.
(183) Rome`s Legions had not full strength anymore and probably around 100.000 Legionaries left, while Carthage fielded around 60.000 men.
(184) This was a clear abuse of his power, but the Senate did not hold him liable for his actions.
 
Chapter XXXVI - The Pergamenian War (69 BC)

A. The situation in Asia (112 - 71 BC)

The 40 years since the Greek War were considerable stable years for Asia in terms of the lack of open hostilities. But although Egypt and the Seleucid Empire were Allies, the relation between these two realms remained ambivalent. The apple of discord between these states was Osroene, a small country in today`s Syria. Although nominally independent, it was occupied by Egypt and Seleucian forces for decades, with neither side gaining a significant advantage to finally seize the whole country.

This "cold war", among other problems, was a political burden, that weighed heavily on the shoulders of the Seleucid Empire. Even more important was the dynastic situation, that haunted the realm. In 73 BC, Zoticus II. Aratid was Basileus for two years and experienced severe domestic unrest due to the allegedly suspicious circumstances concerning his succession to the throne.(185)

In a short period of time, some Governors at the peripheral areas took the opportunity to declare their independence, while Zoticus had to deploy all its forces in the heartland of the empire to maintain order and the status quo in Osroene. To the east, where the Parthians had established themselves as constant threat, a new so-called Parthian state, the Parthian League, evolved. Then, in late 72 BC, Eumenes Attalid, Governor of Pergamon and distant relative of the last Pergamon King(186), declared the independence of the territories administered by him and proclaimed himself King of Pergamon.

Seleucia72.png
Fig. 39: Asia in 72 BC​

Seleucia`s allies, especially Pontus, tried to subdue this new realm, but couldn`t succeed to destroy. Eventually, Seleucia had to sign a rather blameful peace treaty, since it lacked the forces to get its will. It had to acknowledge Pergamon`s independence, while Pergamon had to cede Phrygia to Pontus. Thus, Seleucia lost nearly all its influence in Asia Minor besides an exclave in Galatia, while Pontus further increased its position.

B. Cause of the conflict (70 BC)

Rome naturally monitored the course of events with mistrust. The expansion of Pontus` influence in Asia Minor wasn`t in Rome`s interest. On the other hand was Eumenes` secession from the Seleucid Empire an opportunity to finally gain a foothold on Asian soil and a base for future campaigns versus Pontus.

In late 70 BC, about one year after the peace with Carthage(187), Rome delivered a probably fabricated document, the so-called "Donation of Attalid", to Eumenes. According to this document, Philetaerus Attalid, being about 60 years old and childless, appointed in 280 BC the Roman Republic as the heir of his realm after his death. Rome demanded from Eumenes, being Philetaerus` legal successor, to resign and cede Pergamon to the Republic. Eumenes outrageously refused. Shortly after, the war between the Republic and Pergamon began.

C. Progress

The Pergamenian War was extremely short. Rome, being aware, that Eumenes would not bend to Rome`s demands, had already embarked the VII., XV. and XVI. Legion.

This force landed near Halicarnassus in late January 69 BC. Halicarnassus, as all former Seleucian cities along the Asian coast, had only light fortifications. Confronted with Rome`s superior forces, the local commander immediately surrendered. Less than a month later, Ephesus opened its gates for the advancing roman army. In late March, Rome`s Legions appeared near Pergamon itself.

Eumenes realised, that his own force was no match for the battle-hardened Legionaries and decided to start negotiations to prevent the complete destruction of his realm. Just a few days later, Eumenes agreed to cede the provinces of Caria and Lydia to Rome.

AsiaMinor68.png
Fig. 40: Greece and Asia Minor in late 69 BC
(Roman numerals: Legionary camps)​

D. Results

The Pergamenian War was remarkable for various reasons.

First of all the "Donation of Attalid", although it was most probably a falsification, indicated, that Rome did not want to further intrude into Hellenic territory without any cause to disguise or ennoble its true motivation. This indicates, that Rome`s relation to the Hellenic culture is completely different than to the Phoenician. Rome tried to expand while keeping good relations to the local population and rulers, as seen in the peaceful capture of Ephesus and Halicarnassus and the mild peace conditions toward Eumenes, who was left in power for the time being(188).

More importantly the war largely improved Rome`s strategic position. With two new bases in the east, it finally controlled all approaches to the Aegean Sea. Additionally the new territories bordered as well Egyptian as Pontic territory. There can be no doubt, that Rome intended to further expand into Asia Minor. Most obvious evidence for such a claim is the designation of the new Legion stationed in Ephesus: the Legio XVIII Pontica.


(185) He inherited the realm from his grandfather Zoticus I. Aratid (called "the Just"), since his father, the apparent Heir, was suddenly assassinated, when Zoticus reached adulthood. Although there is no evidence, most Historians assume, that Zoticus at least tolerated it, since his efforts to detect and punish the perpetrators were rather limited.
(186) Philetaerus Attalid , who lost his Kingdom to Pontus in 272 BC.
(187) There is a consensus, that Rome did wait some time to initiate hostilities with Pergamon in order to replenish the decimated XV. Legion after its African campaign.
(188) This cannot hide the fact, that Rome could fabricate another cause for war to bring down Eumenes at any time.
 
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Chapter XXXVII - The 2nd Pergamenian War (57 BC)

A. Causes

After the end of the Pergamenian War, the relation between the Republic and Pergamum seem to have eased rather fast. The Republic agreed to not threaten Pergamum any further in exchange for Pergamum being a client of Rome. Roman merchants had an interest in expanding into the Pergamenian market due to the local goods(189). For 10 years, the situation was stable and characterized by mutual economic benefit.

The situation dramatically changed in 58 BC, when Pergamum experienced a palace coup, lead by Perdiccas Proctid. According to Sempronius`s report, his motivation was as well an anti-roman stance as an old family feud between the Proctids and the ruling Attalids.

Rome was worried about this event and ordered Faustus Fabius Asina, the local Governor, to deploy his troops along the Roman-Pergamenian border. Before he reached his destination, news spread, that Perdiccas had murdered all members of the Attalid family and seemed to socialize with the Macedonian-Pontic alliance. Faustus Fabius immediately decided to intervene and entered Pergamenian territory.

B. Progress

The campaign, that lasted for about one month, showed that, although Perdiccas was in control of the Palace, he had not the full support of the ruling class.

Faustus Fabius advanced toward Pergamum with the XVIII. Legion and faced the Pergamenian Army a little bit to the east of the city. The enemy force consisted of at least 10.000 men, mostly light Infantry. Sempronius reports, that the Pergamenian commander stopped the battle after a short skirmish with only a couple of dead and wounded. Allegedly he surrendered after "...having opposed the transit of enemy forces, as it corresponds with the law, his duty and position. But now he asks the roman commander to let him join in the cause to establish the order in Pergamum and oust the Usurper from the Throne."(190)

When the Garrison of Pergamum realized, that their own forces had joined the roman army, it opened the gates, when the combined force arrived. Shortly later, Perdiccas was caught, when he tried to escape from the city, allegedly disguised as woman.

With the order restored, but no member of the royal family left alive, Faustus Fabius decided to annex the whole territory and incorporate it into the Region of Asia.

Aegean57.png
Fig. 41: The Aegean Sea after the 2nd Pergamenian War​

C. Results

With the seizure of Pergamum, Rome finally controlled the Dardanelles and the whole shipping to and from the Black Sea, thus gaining control of the communication lines between Macedonia and Pontus.

In Pergamum, Rome established a policy of indulgence and co-operation with the local elite. Perdiccas was brought to Rome, when Faustus Fabius resigned from his post as Governor a few weeks later(191). His successor was Perseus Timolid, who served as Treasurer during the recent administrations. With a local dignitary as highest official in the Region and given the extensive building program of the next years, Rome secured the benevolence of the Greek population.


(189) The term "Parchment" (Greek: Pergamene; Latin: Pergamenum; German: Pergament) derives from Pergamum. Parchment was invented in the 2nd Century BC and was a more attractive choice than Papyrus due to its smooth surface, durability and reusability (a reused parchment is called Palimpsest, that derives from the Greek word Palimpsestos, that means as much as "scraped again"). It remained the most widely used material in Europe, until Paper replaced it as from the 13th Century AD.
(190) Sempronius, "Annales Romanum", Vol. XLI
(191) Perdiccas was executed after Faustus` Triumph
 

nothing beats precision .... you are making really impressive progress and I remain utterly taken by the way you present the material. It is like reading one of those scholarly, second language, sources that I had to read around Latin and Greek (& thats meant as praise ... really)
 
nothing beats precision .... you are making really impressive progress and I remain utterly taken by the way you present the material. It is like reading one of those scholarly, second language, sources that I had to read around Latin and Greek (& thats meant as praise ... really)

Thank you. This is the most elaborated of my AARs for sure. But it is fun. And I am kind of a fanboy when it comes to footnotes, but maybe you noticed already. :)
 
Thank you. This is the most elaborated of my AARs for sure. But it is fun. And I am kind of a fanboy when it comes to footnotes, but maybe you noticed already. :)

a friend of mine, who is an academic historian, once described the moment you've really made as a historian is when you produce a page of a book where the space allocated to footnotes is greater than the amount of actual narrative text. The pinnacle of this are being, of course, a single sentence at the top of the page and the rest filled with the footnote ...