The news of the conquest was greeted with large celebrations in London. Many people had been worried about the outcome, almost believing defeat to be inevitable. Victoria however, was convinced of the outcome from the first day.
We are not interested in the possibilities of defeat. They do not exist.
Queen Victoria.
Consequences of the conquest of the Middle Kingdom by the United Kingdom
On December 22nd 1871, China officially came under the administration of the United Kingdom, and became an integral British possession as much as the Philippines or Canada. The consequences of a democratic government gaining control of over 400 million Chinese cannot be exaggerated.
Diplomatic Consequences
Prior to the conquest of China, Britain had followed a conservative approach to foreign policy. Apart from minor colonial skirmishes with other European powers over small colonies, small wars in Asia against uncivilized savages and wars fought alongside other European and American powers against tyranny, Britain had generally remained aloof from conflict. Expenditure on the navy was low, as was that of the army, as peoples of Anglo-Saxon descent traditionally viewed large standing armies with disdain.
However, the expense involved with the highly idealistic liberation of China, and the vast area involved, made European great powers anxious as to British intensions. The Foreign Office found it very difficult to conduct any sort of diplomacy with other powers. Indeed, the last negotiation conducted by the Foreign Office took place in October 1871, concerning compensation for British merchants in Africa over harassment by Ottoman soldiers.
The last diplomatic deal 
Domestic opinion in foreign nations often turned decisively against Britain, manipulated by undemocratic capitalist and socialist forces, who by demonizing the UK hoped to gain more power for themselves. The cartoonists of various state controlled newspapers were particularly venomous in attacking British motives.
A typical cartoon from Germany, depicting John Bull as a giant malevolent Octopus bent on world domination.
These cartoons can be seen however, as simply a deep rooted denial of the by undemocratic forces to the liberating mission of Great Britain. Nevertheless, the isolation of Great Britain from other nations had important consequences. Britain would henceforth act on it’s own, continuing its great mission to liberate the peoples of the world from tyranny by solely their own devices- prior to 1871 Great Britain had favoured multilateral action. After 1871, Britain stood alone as the bulwark against tyranny. This did have some negative effects however, as by essentially breaking relations with other nations, it inadvertently strengthened undemocratic and capitalist forces in those nations.
Perhaps the greatest change was felt by the bowler hatted clerks and secretaries of the Foreign Office. Now, rather than writing detailed and complex treaties negotiating colonial borders and forging strong alliances with stubborn allies, their only duties consisted of the mundane issuing of declarations of war and concluding peace treaties placing new areas under the control of Her Majesty’s Government.
Social Reform
Change is inevitable. Change is constant.
Benjamin Disraeli
One day before the completion of the conquest, the Prime Minister, Benjamin Disraeli, passed a bill in the House of Commons for the most ambitious program of social reform seen anywhere in the world. Legislation was enacted primarily to compensate the appalling conditions found in China, but legislation applied to all parts of the Empire. Disraeli’s program was in many ways similar to Bismarck’s program of social reforms, and incurred large debt in the short term. It was also a sharp distinction from previous conservative policy, although it was generally applauded by the agricultural and industrial worker elite which controlled the Conservative Party.
Unemployment Benefits
Unemployment benefits, or “The Dole” as it was often known, was a generous system of payments intended to tide over the unemployed until the expanding economy provided work. Unemployment was previously unknown in the empire, apart from areas such as India where large numbers of liberal minded clerks lived by begging. However, over half of the Chinese population were without work, and it would be some time before sufficient jobs could be found by developing agriculture and industry. These benefits were a significant humanitarian gesture, preventing a widespread catastrophe in the wake of liberation.
Health Care
Imperial Health care systems, although existing, had generally been poorly funded and unable to properly deal with the large numbers of sick and wounded generated by the war and the profound ignorance of basic hygiene amongst capitalists and aristocrats. Disraeli’s program, allowing funding of the construction of new hospitals for civilian and military use, expansion of the training of physicians at Universities, education programs for children encouraging greater hygiene and funding for general public health projects such as the construction of improve sewage systems throughout the Empire. This program was an immediate success, and encouraged a population boom in the years following 1871.
Pensions
The unfortunately large numbers of dead and wounded from the war made it necessary to include pensions for military personnel and their families in this legislation. Pensions were later expanded into the civilian area by industrial leaders. Britain’s Pension system was later regarded as the best in the world.
Minimum Wage
Owing to the immense incompetence, sloth and dishonesty showed by Capitalists, it was agreed that the new minimum wage would truly be a minimum wage in order to encourage Capitalists into more acceptable occupations.
Work Hours
Work hours were of course untouched, as to limit work hours was to encourage sloth, indolence and Capitalism. Indeed, all MPs present were indignant at the thought of Capitalists working as little as 14 hours per day. Legislation regarding limiting the work day was widely (and probably correctly) regarded as the tools of Satan.
Safety Regulations
Parliament passed regulations allowing for some improvement to workplace safety, but generally this legislation was quite limited in scope, and did little to improve workplace standards.
Police
Enacted through separate legislation almost a year following the conquest of China, the Police Powers Act ushered in new funding and new powers for Police throughout the Empire. This had occurred primarily due to recommendations of a Swedish traveller to China and man of letters, Johan Von Paradox who commented that raising police funding was a good way of preventing rebellion.
China had an apparently enormous number of rebellions. A few reactionary Chinese seemed strangely loyal to the Qing dynasty. It would be nearly ten years before Victoria could truly be said to hold the mandate of heaven. In the meantime, the establishment of a powerful constabulary eased the burden placed upon regular military forces, and even did something about the more or less omnipresent capitalist and aristocratic crime gangs which terrorized Imperial citizens.
Economic Ramifications
The costs of the war, and of Disraeli’s social reform package were enormous. In early 1872, debt was already over 4 million pounds- it would be over a decade before being fully paid off. Massive investment was also required by both government and industry to modernize China’s shockingly badly developed transport and agricultural centers. Some railways were built in the following years, although only to a very rudimentary level in the heavily populated eastern coast. Railways continued to be built in Britain and Canada and other industrialized areas, but initially expanding agriculture and other resource gathering operations was the prime factor towards economic growth in China. It would be over 11 years before heavily populated areas such as Suzhou were fully modernized however.
The conquest also had other important economic factors- tens of thousands of Chinese emigrated to other parts of the Empire, crowding into factories in the Philippines and the Americas. Many Japanese also emigrated, wishing to take part in Britain’s industrial miracle. Some areas of Canada and Oregon were transformed by this immigration.
Japanese Migrants flood into Halifax
It remained however, to the treasury to cope with the enormous costs and debt following the liberation of China. Fortunately, the massive increase in taxpayers generated by the liberation of China made vast new sources of funds available to service the debt and modernise China. Another significant factor alleviating difficulties faced by Treasury accountants was the adoption of the Gold Standard for exchange rates. Gold was a perfect commodity to base exchange rates on, owing to its abundance and value, which for many years had remained perfectly steady at half a pound per ton. It is estimated that the adoption of the Gold standard increased industrial productivity and the efficiency of taxation by such an amount that the amount of taxable income was raised by 12%.
Nevertheless, there was still an urgent need for funds to service the debt. Although taxes remained low for several years following 1871, it was inevitable that taxes would be raised to new levels, and indeed it is estimated that by the middle of the 1870s the treasury was skimming by various means almost half of the income of taxpayers. And this was still not enough income for the treasury- but then again, there was never enough.
Military Consequences
British troops gained enormous experience from fighting against Qing troops and partisans. New techniques and innovations were adopted, although curiously British army technology would henceforth remain almost fixed until 1880. Instead, military research in this period was directed towards the navy, which was for the first time in 30 years granted funds to expand. The creaking frigates and Men o’ War were replaced by new Iron Plated ships.
Despite the valour, daring, pluck and courage shown by British forces in China, there were obviously important military lessons that had been learnt from the war. The amount of cavalry present, only 7 corps, was insufficient to for subduing so large an area. It was obvious that in the case that equally large enemies needed to be occupied that more cavalry forces would be required. At the same time, cavalry had been shown to take heavy casualties, whilst the regular infantry took relatively few.
Initially, a large force was required to deal with rebellions- 5 of the 7 cavalry corps were required to remain behind to defeat rebellions by reactionary capitalist nationalist forces. These forces represented only a fraction of the Chinese population, but were a serious problem owing to the enormous size of China’s population. As economic conditions and improved policing took effect, the number of rebels subsided to more manageable levels.
After the conquest, tens of thousands of Northern Chinese volunteered for service in the British army, grateful for liberation from Manchu tyranny. Over time, manpower from Northern China would match and surpass the use of Bengali manpower. Taking the lessons of the campaign to heart, British planners instituted some far reaching reforms as to the composition of the British army.
Henceforth, rather than being trained as regulars, new native divisions would be accompanied by a brigade of Elite guards units. Infantry corps would be expanded, and be composed of 7 divisions rather than 5; 6 guards divisions and 1 unit of engineers, to provide additional rapid construction of field fortifications. Cavalry corps remained more or less unchanged, although their number was increase to 6 divisions of hussars rather than 5. The use of artillery was increased- rather than the old horse drawn dragoon artillery which had taken enormous casualties, artillery brigades were attached to infantry divisions and placed in corps of 6 divisions. These corps possessed enormous firepower, and were generally reserved for the toughest and most difficult enemies. Some new divisions of Dragoon Guards were also produced, probably owing to boredom of junior secretaries at the war office. It would however, be many years before these far reaching changes could be fully brought into practice, and in the years following, Bengali troops would continue to be the backbone of Imperial forces, such as in the Korean crisis and the Tibet incident.
Freedon-The Greatest Consequence
Of all the changes, the largest obviously occurred to the Chinese people. Oppressed by the Manchu for hundreds of years, now they were finally free, and protected by British law. Crime was very slowly beaten back over the following years by the new Police force.
The Manchu Emperors had ruled autocratically from within the forbidden city, totally cut off from the population. Victoria was very keen that her new Chinese subjects knew the benevolent power who was watching over them, and ordered that enormous placards were placed in all major cities. And every Chinese knew whom to thank for the enormous improvement in their lives.
Victoria’s benevolent picture gazes out over Tianenmen Square