1962 - The Vanguard
Although the 1960s would prove a pivotal moment for International Syndicalism as a whole, as growing doctrinal conflict between the Syndicalist states would see the movement severely hampered, the loudest reverberations of the change that Syndicalism was undergoing would not be felt in the highly Orthodox Syndicalist world or even the Syndicalist-aligned states. Rather the new face of Syndicalism would be moulded in the streets and universities of the Capitalist world. Whilst the splintering of the wider Syndicalist movement as a whole, following the Second Mexican-American War, is the most often cited reasons for the change the underlying reasons of the change are buried much deeper. Indeed, present analysis claims that the origin of the change lies not at the feet of Syndicalists, but instead Nationalists. More specifically the protests that swelled cross Eastern Europe under German Chancellor Frahm, as they posit that the reasons leading to the change brought about by the Studentenbewegung or students movements lie there. Nursed in the German incubator the movement would eventually mostly abandon its nationalist roots and adopt a much more Syndicalist tone as it spread across the Capitalist world. Inspired by the works of French philosophers, colloquially known as the post-Syndicalists, the increasing association with Syndicalists would see the movement take on a radically egalitarian, anti-authoritarian as well as anti-war character. This new message greatly resonated not just among the disillusioned Eastern Europeans nationalists, but also among much of the new generation of students entering higher education in the late fifties and early sixties, most of whom had been brought up during the war or its immediate aftermath. Although always political, the 60s would see a move away from alignment with traditional Syndicalist or Nationalist forces that had been the norm for much of the 1950s. Instead the internal struggles of the SynIntern would see numerous groups break from the Orthodoxy of International Syndicalism as the wider movement itself began to increasing splinter.
Although the violent suppression of the protests in Kiev may have suppressed public outcry for a while, its memory lived on.
The foundation of new groups would also be how the Studentenbewegung seemed to hold so much influence over Syndicalist affairs without really having any direct influence on Orthodox Syndicalism, which still largely continued following the line towed by the 'patron' they had aligned themselves with. The struggles of the young vanguard with the old guard did however see a constant bickering over doctrine, not to mention radicalism, become the norm that lay the foundations for undermining the power that Orthodox Syndicalists still maintained among the public. However it would be misleading to imply that this youthful rebellious spirit was just limited to dealings between the students as well as the representatives of the old order. Internal schisms within the groups proved rampant not just on personal, radical or doctrinal lines, but also on national lines with the best example perhaps being the relations between the various student movements across the Europe - more specifically in its its eastern cradle. Although the Kiev Bloodbath and the increased presence of Hungarian troops in Transylvania may have delayed the inevitable, it could not stem the tide. Whilst the student movements in Germany, the Austrian and to a lesser degree the Hungarian parts of Austro-Hungary would increasingly adopt the ideals of Pan-Europeanism, multinationalism as well as continuing the push for taking a genuine chance on true democracy, the same could not be said for the nations they ruled over. Indeed clashes between the 'native' student movements, for whom the total and utter destruction of the Herrendemokratie and ridding themselves of the "Stahlhelmed ghost haunting Europe" was primary, with the so-called Herrenbewegung only began to intensify as the sixties carried on. This would not only see bitter rivalries form between the 'native' and 'Herrenvolk' student corporations, but also stoke simmering ethnic tensions among the general public.
Photograph of a clash between German and 'native' students, dated mid-1960s.
It goes without saying that the Studentenbewegung would also take very firm root across the Empire of Japan. Given that the Empire had perhaps most closely largely been modelled on Germany and that despite the officially cold relations between the two nations academic cooperation as well as cultural exchange remained vibrant, it comes as no surprise that the trends increasingly present in Germany would find its way quickly to Japan. Although by the 1960s the Gilded Shōwa era had yet to truly subside, the issues that had arisen from such rapid economic development as well as rapid growth across all of Asia had begun to take root across all of society. The appearance of student movements thus saw radicalism break out of hotspots such as Korea and spread across the entire Empire and most worryingly the Home Islands. Many in the Japanese government had hoped that the political liberalisation brought about during the boom era would have as well as the failures of Army radicals in the thirties and the JCP in the fifties would have disgraced radicalism, both ultranationalist and syndicalist, and pushed the public at large towards acceptance, if not appreciation of the status quo. Whilst such trends were indeed true for both blue and white collar workers, the same could not be said for the youth. Many of whom lacked a personal connection to either of these events, especially as more time passed, and who felt increasingly alienated by the system that their figures of authority took pride in and had struggled to build in the preceding years. For many among these alienated youths, the failures did not necessarily represent warnings, but rather endorsements for radical change. It comes as no surprise given the growing influx of young working class Japanese into institutions of higher learning, many of whom had been brought amidst the strikes that had followed the legalisation of labour unionism as well as the Three Diseases Protests, that an increasing number of young Japanese would see the failures and the change that sprung from these events as not just proof that only radical action could bring about change for the Imperial System, but also confirmation that it would also succeed.
The growth of the students movement emboldened Japanese students leading to
increasingly violent conflicts between police and protestors.
Much has been said about the political trends within the Japanese students movements, as well as its eventual formation into a largely 'hisei' or non-political movement, concerned primarily with either extremely specific or rather local issues. Despite this eventual form, the early years of the movement in Japan were characterised political activism like their European counterparts. Although popular among the blue collar workers, as mentioned before, the alienated youths that stood at the avant-garde of the Japanese student movement despised the Taishūtō for its rejection of violence, seeing it as little more than a pink face of the establishment and the Imperial System. This hatred would manifest itself most prominently in 1961, when a radical left-wing student activist tried to assassinate Taishūtō bigwig Asanuma Inejirō, whilst the latter was campaigning. Even though Asanuma survived the rift created from this act meant that even after the movement began to splinter, primarily due to the same issues that plagued their European counterparts, negotiations between the two groups were still something that could provoke outrage and even power struggles among both. However, just like in Europe the splintering of the International Syndicalist movement meant that increasing amounts of Japanese student movements began to turn away from even the most radical of the occasionally legal Japanese Syndicalist parties. Despite trying to maintain pace with the student movements, the continued attempts by the JCP to move away from the embarrassing armed struggle in the fifties provoked anger among the more radical student groups. The continued attempts to balance the need to attract the working class, towards whom this slow de-radicalisation was targeted, as well as the young radicals proved too much for many among the latter as they argued that the distancing from violence would see the JCP turn into little more than a slightly louder Taishūtō.
Despite the assassination attempt, Asanuma declined to change his behaviour
and attempts at betraying himself as a true man of the people.
No discussion of the Studentenbewegung especially the Japanese is complete without addressing the role of women's activism. Although women's activism would be tied to nearly all student movements, the lack of voting rights as well as the changing social structure meant that the movements were especially strongly related in Japan. Throughout the Gilded Shōwa more and more women had entered the workforce not only as glorified office decorations and semi-secretaries, but also as workers in their own right. This trend is largely perceived to be a result of the increased labour demand during the largest periods of expansion. Whilst marriage still represented an indefinite hiatus for their career for a large amount of women, if not most of them, an increasing number of so-called career women continued their professional life well after marriage and even child birth. Whilst this group was initially composed primarily of managerial workers and other specialists by the 1960s it had also begun to encompass limited amounts of women in the industrial and service sector. These latter two groups were also very prominently associated with labour unionism and are noted for the roles they played both in building support for the Three Diseases Protests as well as fortifying spirits of resistance during the Miike strikes. Industrial action was however only one facet of women's activism during the era. During the Constitutional Reforms of 1937, the case for women's suffrage had largely been overshadowed and on some occasions even silenced by those pushing through universal male suffrage. The following decades had also seen little change in the political role of women and although the suffragette movement continued in Japan, by the 1940s it had largely become comatose. The movement did however gain a new lease on life in the second half of the 1950s, when growing amounts of women in the work force as well as increasing numbers of highly educated women started demanding equal rights. The egalitarian message preached by the students movement saw the two groups increasingly intertwine despite deep-seated conflicts between radicals of both movements. This ranged from rejecting the need to fight for voting rights as a bourgeoisie ploy to accusations that the more libertine trends within the students groups, such as the resurgence of polygamy, was a ploy to deprive women of equal rights as well as other issues also common within the student movement itself.
Demonstration for women's voting rights by Japanese student activists.
-----------------------------------------
January
January 1 - In Germany, Chancellor Konrad Adenauer announces the formation of the Federated States of Oceania made up of the German Pacific colonies. The move draws criticism from DKP members, who admonish him for repeating the mistakes of the SPD. The move however leaves Zentrum support largely untouched. The region is set to gain independence in 1963.
January 9 – The assassination of Dominican President Rafael Trujillo marks the beginning of the descent into civil war for the island nation as the struggle for power turns violent between Trujillo loyalists and the post-Trujillo junta. Following the American blockade of the Caribbean the appearance of a third group - American funded Syndicalists.
January 10 – An avalanche on Nevado Huascarán in Peru causes 4,000 deaths.
January 28 - The Japanese satellite Teisatsu 1 is launched to study the Moon, but narrowly misses its intended target.
Photographs of the bullet riddled car of Trujillo would have likely made quite the
headlines had it not been for the war between the CSA and Mexico.
February
February 1 - In Japan, Tokyo becomes the first city in the world to cross the 10 million citizens mark.
February 7 - In Germany, 299 are killed in the in the Luisenthal Mine Tragedy. The disaster was triggered when a methane explosion, caused by the opening of a methane cavern, triggers a massive coal dust explosion.
February 13 - A British attempt to pierce the American blockade is foiled after the American People's Navy arrives in force.
February 20 – The FDB-105 Arrow interceptor aircraft begins to be rolled out across the forces of the Atlantic Treaty Organization. Although no deliveries are made to the Union of Britain after the recent decline in relations, the British have previously obtained plans and begin production in their own plants.
The rapid and ever continuing growth of Tokyo raised quite a number of concerns for the
Japanese government, despite the apparent prestige from having the largest city in the world.
March
March 9 - In the German Empire, Zentrum makes a poor showing at the general election, however still manages to gain enough seats for a majority together with its previous coalition partners the NLP and the FVP. Many commentators suggest that the dwindling support of the the Chancellor's party has to do with labour union rabble-rousing about the threat of Pan-Europeanism as preached by the Chancellor.
March 11 - In Austria, the Christian Democrats lead by Kurt Edler von Schuschnigg manage a close victory over the Social Democratic Workers' Party. The latter has been criticised over the past few years due to its failure to address both social and foreign policy issues, as well as a harsher stance on the Legion by von Schuschnigg.
March 18 - 'Un premier amour' sung by Isabelle Aubret wins the Eurovision Song Contest 1962 for France.
March 24 - A number of bomb attacks occur in Shanghai, killing 110 and injuring 147. Constabulary investigation implicates the NLFNC (National Liberation Front of North China) as responsible for the event, but the organization denies its involvement, blaming it on out of hand power struggles among the local Triad factions.
April
April 7 - Nelson Mandela is arrested by the South African government near Howick, and charged with incitement to rebellion.
April 16 - The Nissho Maru, the largest tanker in the world at the time is launched from the Sasebo Naval Arsenal.
April 18 – The Japanese cabinet orders the evacuation of all nationals and diplomatic personnel from Mexico, citing the worsening security environment as well as the threat to lives as a cause.
April 28 – A firefight ensues between Legion-affiliated militants and Hungarian forces leaving 10 gendarmerie and 2 legionaries dead. The incident comes during manoeuvrers by Romanian forces along the Transylvanian border. Hungarian Landwehr units are rushed to the border, whilst the Common Army units are put on high alert.
The Nissho Maru standing by a slip.
May
May 2 - Benfica beats Real Madrid 5–3 at the Olympic Stadium in Amsterdam winning the 1961–62 European Cup in association football.
May 3 – In Japan, the Mikawashima train crash kills 160 and injures around 300. The accident causes Japanese National Railways to change its policy of not stopping its trains unless absolutely necessary to stopping trains regardless the size of the accident.
May 14 – King Juan Carlos I of Spain and Princess Sophia of Greece are married at a ceremony in Athens. The wedding also plays host to talks, as Germany tries to align Spain and the Austrians attempt to truly align the Greeks against the Legion.
May 15 - The first armed helicopter company of the Heer is formed at the Port of Matadi with the intent of gaining better control over the Congolese interior. Additional helicopter formations are being formed across the dispersed forces of Infanterie-Div. 'Lettow-Vorbeck'. The manoeuvrability offered by the formation also draws the attention of the rest of the Heer.
One of the first German Helicopter units leaving for patrol duty, dated May of 1962.
June
June 4 - The Kōmei Seiji Renmei, the political arm of the Sōka Gakkai, announces its official reformation into a new party the Kōmeitō.
June 11 - Following a ceasefire called in May after the forces of the Indochinese Federation are routed by Indian regulars and Laotian guerillas the Bangkok Accords are signed officially recognizing Laos as an independent state. Although Saigon continues backing guerilla forces in the region, the growing Indian presence as well as the lack of aid to it during the Syndicalist Congress in Brest has put the Indochinese off the costly failure.
June 15 – The world's first commercial communications satellite belonging to the Japanese state-owned communications company NDD is launched into orbit and activated the next day.
June 17 - Brazil beats Bohemia 3–1 winning the 1962 FIFA World Cup.
Being marred by constant violence the 1962 World Cup would see a revitalization of the
Chilean Junta, still reeling from the 1960 earthquake.
July
July 1 - An assassination attempt is made at Chairman Oswald Mosley whilst he is giving a speech in London. The assassin flees the scene and escapes into the dense smog choking London. The event leads to harsh crackdowns across London, during which the assassin is caught, as well as causing the aging Chairman to refrain from future speeches. Rumours circulate about the hit being organized by Washington.
July 3 - The Japanese national men's gymnastic team picks up its first victory at the 15th World Gymnastics Championships in Prague.
July 11 - The YS-11 and replacement hope for the ageing Nakajima L2D, the first fully Japanese engineered passenger aircraft, makes its maiden flight.
July 12 – Japan's first TV information magazine 'Weekly TV Guide' is launched.
The YS-11 as the first truly Japanese passenger jet would be pushed hard by MITI.
Thanks to this, it quickly rose to dominate air travel across Asia.
August
August 18 – The Quarrymen debut nationally as their single 'Love Me Do'/'P.S. I Love You' releases and is played on the BBC Light Programme.
August 19 - The 44th Kōshien is won by Tochigi Sakushin Gakuin High School, its first victory at the Summer event. This also marks the first consecutive Kōshien victory in the same year.
August 24 - In Indonesia, the launch of the TVRI marks the official launch of a domestic television service in the region.
August 26 - M5.9 class earthquake occurred on Miyakejima due to a volcanic eruption.
Despite the growing anti-American sentiment in the Union of Britain, British officials proved unwilling
to ban rock music. Claiming it as fighting the Americans with their own weapons.
September
September 1 - Typhoon Wanda strikes Hong Kong, killing at least 130 and injuring more than 600.
September 7 - The Europarat bill is narrowly approved in the Reichstag. Although its detractors call it an attack on German interests, the bill as well as the powers of the Europarat have been greatly watered down to assure its passage as well as continued German dominance over the bloc. The Council, made up of delegates from each of the willing states in the Mitteleuropan economic union, has advisory as well as theoretical legislative power over the future of the new economic union.
September 20 - Excavation of the Shin-Tanna Tunnel is completed, progress on the Tōkaidō Shinkansen project is proceeding as scheduled with the opening of the line scheduled prior to the 1964 Olympic Games. Japanese National Railways also begins funding research into maglev trains.
September 26 - The Wakato Ōhashi, which connects Tobata City, Fukuoka Prefecture and Wakamatsu City is opened.
With a 367-meter main span and two kilometer length, the Wakato Ōhashi
quickly earned the nickname of 'finest suspension bridge in the Orient'.
October
October 1 - 'Staking more than Life', the first film starring the stout, but debonair British Intelligence operative James Bond premieres at the London Pavilion, featuring Sean Connery as the hero.
October 5 - In Japan, the first National Comprehensive Development Plan is formulated. The plan argues for 'social development' as well as achieving a more balanced regional economic development to counter the growing issue of urban overcrowding as well as the depopulation of the countryside.
October 11 – Pope John XXIII convenes the first ecumenical council of the Roman Catholic Church in 92 years.
October 19 - The New Japan Women's Association is formed. Although decried by some for its ties to the Japanese Communist Party, the organization quickly gains support on campuses due to its loud demands for equal rights setting itself apart from the the women's organization of the past.
Set in Canada during the height of the Syndicalist War, the movie has been
conspicuously scrubbed of the role played by CSA operatives.
November
November 4 - A postal bomb explodes at the office of a fan club for the famous enka artist Shimakura Chiyoko. The package is signed Sōka Jirō and marks the start of a massive man hunt across the Imperial Capitol.
November 15 - The Republic of China begins first steps into the realization of the Three Gorges Dam project.
November 28 - Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands dies in the Het Loo Palace.
November 29 – Video Research, an audience rating research company, funded by Tokyo Shibaura Electric, Dentsu as well as 18 commercial broadcasters is established.
Although Queen Wilhelmina had considered abdication in the late 40s due to poor health, she had been
convinced against it and had instead delegated much of her duties to her heir apparent Princess Juliana.
December
December 7 – Rainier III, Prince of Monaco revises the principality's constitution, devolving some of his formerly autocratic power to several advisory and legislative councils.
December 20 - Kyobashi, the first service section of the Metropolitan Expressway opens.
December 22 - The 'Big Freeze' begins in the Union of Britain.
December 24 - In Japan, following the first broadcast day of Radio Gifu, the number of commercial broadcasters in the Empire crosses 45.
The 'Big Freeze' marked the coldest winter in the Union of Britain since 1895
with there being no frost-free nights until the 5th of March 1963.
-----------------------------------------