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Wow! You've been busy. An excellent installment and entertaining read.
Seems that nobles everywhere are up in arms about one thing or another
I, too, suffered similar indignities that just about drove me around the bend at times in my Timurid/Mughal game. Their demands always seem to come at the most inopportune times. Bastards!
Keep up the good work.
Seems that nobles everywhere are up in arms about one thing or another
I, too, suffered similar indignities that just about drove me around the bend at times in my Timurid/Mughal game. Their demands always seem to come at the most inopportune times. Bastards!Keep up the good work.
I just finished reading through this, MacRaith, and it's excellent. It reads like a very well done history book. I think you do an excellent job of making gameplay oddities, like the short reign of Nicolò Marcello, into rational historical possibilites. Also, the fact that you are, as you said, still learning the "finer points of the game" makes the story that much better, since it is not all instant success.
Great job!
Great job!
Chapter 8: The Western and Eastern Wars 1507 - 1514
Maximilian of Austria was rapidly becoming the most unpopular monarch in Europe. In September 1505 Austria and her ally Poland had gone to war against a central European coalition of Saxony, Bavaria, Prussia, Mainz and Bohemia. Bavaria had withdrawn in January 1507, being forced to cede Würzburg to Austria. This motivated Hessen to declare war against Austria and Poland the following month, and subsequently Hessen’s allies in France, Auvergne and Savoy entered the conflict. Austria conquered and annexed Mainz in March, but Cologne declared independence from Austria in April. Also in April, Poland withdrew from her alliance with Austria; Maximilian now stood alone. Venice and her allies watched the conflict from a careful distance, not wishing to join the general hostilities but prepared in the event they were forced into battle.
As it happened, it was a different war that was the expanded alliance’s first test. Spain annexed the Kingdom of Naples on 15 February 1507, and then, citing a desire to restore Pope Julius II’s temporal possessions to him (but in fact motivated by the prospect of additional territorial gains in Italy), declared war on Savoy on 21 June 1507. Both sides called in their allies, resulting in a war between the Venetian alliance and Spain, England, Portugal and Hannover. Siena quickly marched troops into Napoli, besieging Naples on 12 July. Venice sent the fleet to the Bay of Naples to blockade any Spanish attempts to lift the siege, and began forming an army in Marche with the intent of marching it south to Apulia.
Then, abruptly, a new front opened. On 24 August, the Ottoman Empire declared war on Hungary; the alliance suddenly had two wars to fight: the Western War in Italy and the Eastern War (also known as the Third Balkan War) in the Balkans. Venice had troops in place in Ragusa ready to march, and instead of transferring them to the Italian peninsula as planned, Loredano ordered them to march on Kosovo. They arrived on 15 September, having encountered no opposition, and began siege operations at Nish. Venice’s Italian army arrived in Apulia on 26 September and initiated a siege at Taranto as well.
The Western War went very smoothly at first, as Spain’s troops in Sicily were tied down by rebellions there and could not be dispatched to relieve the Neapolitan provinces. Venice experienced an early setback in the Eastern War, when on 6 January 1508 the Ottoman army lifted the siege of Nish and forced the Venetians to retreat to Ragusa. But Venice was raising more troops, and began forming a new invasion force in the East. Meanwhile the Ottomans were having difficulties in Wallachia, where the Hungarians had initiated a siege at Buchuresti, and they pulled the majority of their troops out of Kosovo in a futile attempt to repel the Hungarians.
On 23 January, Spain attempted to open up a new front by landing a small force in Hellas, but Hellas was already on the alert for a potential Ottoman landing, and the pitifully inadequate Spanish force was annihilated. But Spain had more troops to commit, and a second Spanish landing on 15 February was successful; but a relief force from Ionia arrived on 1 March and lifted the brief Spanish siege of Athens.
In April, Loredano received some welcome news. Venice’s artisans had been experimenting with new techniques for forging cannons, and had succeeded in devising a field artillery piece that was light enough to transport easily, yet strong enough to fire a powerful charge. Loredano immediately commissioned 40 of them to be built in Marche, and another 40 in Ragusa. These were to be of critical importance in the months ahead.
Meanwhile England had launched an invasion fleet and was sailing it up the Adriatic. A Venetian attempt to intercept it was beaten back, and England landed an army of 15,000 men in Istria on 24 June. Loredano was forced to admit that Venice was no longer in any position to fight a war on two fronts at once, and on 12 July accepted a Spanish proposal for a Venetian withdrawal from the Western War and a return to the status quo. England duly broke off her siege of Triest, and Venice withdrew her troops from Apulia to Marche.
Now Venice was able to focus her entire attention on the Balkans. Public morale was boosted in early August when word came that the Orthodox hierarchy in Bosnia, of their own accord, had submitted to the Pope and converted to Catholicism; this was seen by many as a sign of divine favor on Venice. Meanwhile, the construction of the new artillery had been completed, and the fleet was dispatched to transfer the Venetian armies in Italy to Ragusa.
By the end of November the invasion force in Ragusa was ready to march, and Venice initiated a new siege at Nish on 22 December. The new artillery gave the Venetians a powerful advantage over the Ottoman garrison, and Nish surrendered on 22 March 1509. Loredano immediately dispatched troops to Albania, initiating a siege at Durrës on 30 April. The Ottomans, tied down by the Hungarians in Wallachia, were unable to reinforce their Balkan provinces. Durrës fell to the Venetians on 30 August.
Finally the Ottomans marched a new army to Kosovo for the relief of Nish, but the new Venetian artillery was devastatingly effective against them, and the Ottoman army was soundly defeated and forced to retreat with heavy casualties on 25 September. Loredano, emboldened by the Venetian successes, ordered the troops in Albania to march on Macedonia; they arrived and began siege operations at Thessaloniki on 6 October. Thessaloniki fell to the Venetians quickly, surrendering on 11 December. The Ottomans brought more troops into action and advanced into Macedonia in early January 1510, forcing the Venetians to retreat and besieging the fortress on 5 January. But, inexplicably, they abandoned the siege after a few days and moved their entire force into Bulgaria. Loredano moved reinforcements into Kosovo to counter the expected attack there, but the Ottomans simply dug in and the war stagnated.
During 1510, Loredano made several peace offers to the Ottomans, proposing they cede Kosovo, Albania, or both to Venice; but the Ottomans summarily rejected them all. Meanwhile, the Venetians were raising new forces of cavalry and artillery, and were sending them into Kosovo, planning to resume the offensive in 1511. But a large cavalry force from the Ottoman-allied Ak Koyunlu made a surprise raid through Macedonia and Albania in December 1510, surprising and defeating the Venetian reserves in Ragusa on 20 December before retreating back to Ottoman territory.
On 5 March 1511, the long-anticipated Ottoman attack on Kosovo finally came, but the Venetians had moved a large force into the province in preparation for a planned summer offensive, and the Ottomans were totally outnumbered and outgunned. The following day the Turks retreated, after suffering nearly 70% casualties. However, the Venetians had taken casualties as well, and the offensive was postponed until the army could be brought back up to strength. The Venetian nobility contributed money for the formation of a new regiment at the end of April, and Loredano ordered more infantry raised. The Ottomans made assaults on Kosovo again in May and June, being driven back with heavy casualties both times. A fourth assault by the Ottomans finally broke the Venetian defenders in Kosovo on 3 July, and the Venetian army retreated to Ragusa; but the Ottomans, instead of initiating a siege, again retreated to Bulgaria. No further action occurred on that front for the remainder of 1512, while Hungary and the Ottomans traded control of Wallachia several times.
Things had been relatively quiet on Venice’s northern border, Austria having made peace with her enemies in January 1508; but on 16 April 1512 Bavaria declared war on Austria, and was quickly joined by her allies Prussia, Bohemia, Saxony, Oldenburg and Pommern; the Austrian War was back in full swing. Loredano kept a watchful eye on the conflict, but did not actively support either side. In Constantinople, Selîm I Yavuz rose to the throne of the Ottoman Empire on 2 May 1512, and Loredano renewed efforts to negotiate a truce; but Selîm categorically rejected all proposals that would require him to cede territory to Venice. In July 1512, a Prussian mercenary captain offered himself for hire to Loredano as a military adviser, promising to train the Venetian army in advanced offensive tactics; Loredano quickly agreed.
Venice moved troops back into Kosovo in late August, prompting the Ottoman troops in Bulgaria to advance; the two armies met in battle on 24 October, and the Ottomans were decisively defeated and retreated into Macedonia. The Venetian troops pursued, and 24 November drove the Ottomans back to Thrace. The Ottomans counterattacked on 18 December and were again forced to retreat. In February 1513, the Ottomans brought in reinforcements from Anatolia to attack the Venetians once more, and on 4 February 1513 the Venetians were driven out of Macedonia, retreating to Hellas. But once again, the Ottomans declined to besiege the Venetian garrison in Thessaloniki, retreating to Thrace.
The Austrian situation intensified in late June 1513, when Hessen entered the war against Austria, bringing along her allies in France, Auvergne and Savoy. Oldenburg withdrew from the war on 2 July, ceding Münster to Austria. This new Austrian acquisition was too much for Hannover, who declared war the following day, calling in her allies in Spain, England and Portugal; Poland also entered the war on Austria’s side.
In the East, the war dragged on with little action; an Ottoman attempt to land a force in Crete was quickly beaten back on 29 July. However, the Venetian treasury was exhausted, and loans were coming due; Loredano indicated to the Turks that he would be willing to consider a peace for monetary reparations instead of territory. Finally the Eastern War was brought to an end in February 1514, with Venice agreeing to return all the captured Ottoman territories in exchange for hefty reparations.
Loredano was pleased; this war had been the first test of the reformed Venetian army, and it had acquitted itself well, gaining substantial ground and beating numerically superior Ottoman armies on several occasions in a war they had not planned. The generals had learned much about the effectiveness of massed cavalry charges with artillery support, and resolved to put those lessons to good use. With Barbango’s reform plan only partially implemented, the Venetians felt themselves already a match for the Ottomans. Public confidence in the military was restored.
Maximilian of Austria was rapidly becoming the most unpopular monarch in Europe. In September 1505 Austria and her ally Poland had gone to war against a central European coalition of Saxony, Bavaria, Prussia, Mainz and Bohemia. Bavaria had withdrawn in January 1507, being forced to cede Würzburg to Austria. This motivated Hessen to declare war against Austria and Poland the following month, and subsequently Hessen’s allies in France, Auvergne and Savoy entered the conflict. Austria conquered and annexed Mainz in March, but Cologne declared independence from Austria in April. Also in April, Poland withdrew from her alliance with Austria; Maximilian now stood alone. Venice and her allies watched the conflict from a careful distance, not wishing to join the general hostilities but prepared in the event they were forced into battle.
As it happened, it was a different war that was the expanded alliance’s first test. Spain annexed the Kingdom of Naples on 15 February 1507, and then, citing a desire to restore Pope Julius II’s temporal possessions to him (but in fact motivated by the prospect of additional territorial gains in Italy), declared war on Savoy on 21 June 1507. Both sides called in their allies, resulting in a war between the Venetian alliance and Spain, England, Portugal and Hannover. Siena quickly marched troops into Napoli, besieging Naples on 12 July. Venice sent the fleet to the Bay of Naples to blockade any Spanish attempts to lift the siege, and began forming an army in Marche with the intent of marching it south to Apulia.
Then, abruptly, a new front opened. On 24 August, the Ottoman Empire declared war on Hungary; the alliance suddenly had two wars to fight: the Western War in Italy and the Eastern War (also known as the Third Balkan War) in the Balkans. Venice had troops in place in Ragusa ready to march, and instead of transferring them to the Italian peninsula as planned, Loredano ordered them to march on Kosovo. They arrived on 15 September, having encountered no opposition, and began siege operations at Nish. Venice’s Italian army arrived in Apulia on 26 September and initiated a siege at Taranto as well.
The Western War went very smoothly at first, as Spain’s troops in Sicily were tied down by rebellions there and could not be dispatched to relieve the Neapolitan provinces. Venice experienced an early setback in the Eastern War, when on 6 January 1508 the Ottoman army lifted the siege of Nish and forced the Venetians to retreat to Ragusa. But Venice was raising more troops, and began forming a new invasion force in the East. Meanwhile the Ottomans were having difficulties in Wallachia, where the Hungarians had initiated a siege at Buchuresti, and they pulled the majority of their troops out of Kosovo in a futile attempt to repel the Hungarians.
On 23 January, Spain attempted to open up a new front by landing a small force in Hellas, but Hellas was already on the alert for a potential Ottoman landing, and the pitifully inadequate Spanish force was annihilated. But Spain had more troops to commit, and a second Spanish landing on 15 February was successful; but a relief force from Ionia arrived on 1 March and lifted the brief Spanish siege of Athens.
In April, Loredano received some welcome news. Venice’s artisans had been experimenting with new techniques for forging cannons, and had succeeded in devising a field artillery piece that was light enough to transport easily, yet strong enough to fire a powerful charge. Loredano immediately commissioned 40 of them to be built in Marche, and another 40 in Ragusa. These were to be of critical importance in the months ahead.
Meanwhile England had launched an invasion fleet and was sailing it up the Adriatic. A Venetian attempt to intercept it was beaten back, and England landed an army of 15,000 men in Istria on 24 June. Loredano was forced to admit that Venice was no longer in any position to fight a war on two fronts at once, and on 12 July accepted a Spanish proposal for a Venetian withdrawal from the Western War and a return to the status quo. England duly broke off her siege of Triest, and Venice withdrew her troops from Apulia to Marche.
Now Venice was able to focus her entire attention on the Balkans. Public morale was boosted in early August when word came that the Orthodox hierarchy in Bosnia, of their own accord, had submitted to the Pope and converted to Catholicism; this was seen by many as a sign of divine favor on Venice. Meanwhile, the construction of the new artillery had been completed, and the fleet was dispatched to transfer the Venetian armies in Italy to Ragusa.
By the end of November the invasion force in Ragusa was ready to march, and Venice initiated a new siege at Nish on 22 December. The new artillery gave the Venetians a powerful advantage over the Ottoman garrison, and Nish surrendered on 22 March 1509. Loredano immediately dispatched troops to Albania, initiating a siege at Durrës on 30 April. The Ottomans, tied down by the Hungarians in Wallachia, were unable to reinforce their Balkan provinces. Durrës fell to the Venetians on 30 August.
Finally the Ottomans marched a new army to Kosovo for the relief of Nish, but the new Venetian artillery was devastatingly effective against them, and the Ottoman army was soundly defeated and forced to retreat with heavy casualties on 25 September. Loredano, emboldened by the Venetian successes, ordered the troops in Albania to march on Macedonia; they arrived and began siege operations at Thessaloniki on 6 October. Thessaloniki fell to the Venetians quickly, surrendering on 11 December. The Ottomans brought more troops into action and advanced into Macedonia in early January 1510, forcing the Venetians to retreat and besieging the fortress on 5 January. But, inexplicably, they abandoned the siege after a few days and moved their entire force into Bulgaria. Loredano moved reinforcements into Kosovo to counter the expected attack there, but the Ottomans simply dug in and the war stagnated.
During 1510, Loredano made several peace offers to the Ottomans, proposing they cede Kosovo, Albania, or both to Venice; but the Ottomans summarily rejected them all. Meanwhile, the Venetians were raising new forces of cavalry and artillery, and were sending them into Kosovo, planning to resume the offensive in 1511. But a large cavalry force from the Ottoman-allied Ak Koyunlu made a surprise raid through Macedonia and Albania in December 1510, surprising and defeating the Venetian reserves in Ragusa on 20 December before retreating back to Ottoman territory.
On 5 March 1511, the long-anticipated Ottoman attack on Kosovo finally came, but the Venetians had moved a large force into the province in preparation for a planned summer offensive, and the Ottomans were totally outnumbered and outgunned. The following day the Turks retreated, after suffering nearly 70% casualties. However, the Venetians had taken casualties as well, and the offensive was postponed until the army could be brought back up to strength. The Venetian nobility contributed money for the formation of a new regiment at the end of April, and Loredano ordered more infantry raised. The Ottomans made assaults on Kosovo again in May and June, being driven back with heavy casualties both times. A fourth assault by the Ottomans finally broke the Venetian defenders in Kosovo on 3 July, and the Venetian army retreated to Ragusa; but the Ottomans, instead of initiating a siege, again retreated to Bulgaria. No further action occurred on that front for the remainder of 1512, while Hungary and the Ottomans traded control of Wallachia several times.
Things had been relatively quiet on Venice’s northern border, Austria having made peace with her enemies in January 1508; but on 16 April 1512 Bavaria declared war on Austria, and was quickly joined by her allies Prussia, Bohemia, Saxony, Oldenburg and Pommern; the Austrian War was back in full swing. Loredano kept a watchful eye on the conflict, but did not actively support either side. In Constantinople, Selîm I Yavuz rose to the throne of the Ottoman Empire on 2 May 1512, and Loredano renewed efforts to negotiate a truce; but Selîm categorically rejected all proposals that would require him to cede territory to Venice. In July 1512, a Prussian mercenary captain offered himself for hire to Loredano as a military adviser, promising to train the Venetian army in advanced offensive tactics; Loredano quickly agreed.
Venice moved troops back into Kosovo in late August, prompting the Ottoman troops in Bulgaria to advance; the two armies met in battle on 24 October, and the Ottomans were decisively defeated and retreated into Macedonia. The Venetian troops pursued, and 24 November drove the Ottomans back to Thrace. The Ottomans counterattacked on 18 December and were again forced to retreat. In February 1513, the Ottomans brought in reinforcements from Anatolia to attack the Venetians once more, and on 4 February 1513 the Venetians were driven out of Macedonia, retreating to Hellas. But once again, the Ottomans declined to besiege the Venetian garrison in Thessaloniki, retreating to Thrace.
The Austrian situation intensified in late June 1513, when Hessen entered the war against Austria, bringing along her allies in France, Auvergne and Savoy. Oldenburg withdrew from the war on 2 July, ceding Münster to Austria. This new Austrian acquisition was too much for Hannover, who declared war the following day, calling in her allies in Spain, England and Portugal; Poland also entered the war on Austria’s side.
In the East, the war dragged on with little action; an Ottoman attempt to land a force in Crete was quickly beaten back on 29 July. However, the Venetian treasury was exhausted, and loans were coming due; Loredano indicated to the Turks that he would be willing to consider a peace for monetary reparations instead of territory. Finally the Eastern War was brought to an end in February 1514, with Venice agreeing to return all the captured Ottoman territories in exchange for hefty reparations.
Loredano was pleased; this war had been the first test of the reformed Venetian army, and it had acquitted itself well, gaining substantial ground and beating numerically superior Ottoman armies on several occasions in a war they had not planned. The generals had learned much about the effectiveness of massed cavalry charges with artillery support, and resolved to put those lessons to good use. With Barbango’s reform plan only partially implemented, the Venetians felt themselves already a match for the Ottomans. Public confidence in the military was restored.
Chapter 9: The First Austrian War and Western Exploration 1514 - 1521
Europe remained a confusing tangle of coalitions at war with one another. Hessen withdrew from the German war against Austria on 6 June 1514. On 24 July, Denmark declared war on Saxony, and the rest of the coalition of minor German states rushed to the defense of the Saxons. The following day a war broke out between Sweden and Poland, with Lithuania entering the war on the Swedish side and Austria on the Polish side. The German coalition suffered a major setback on 10 June 1515, when Denmark conquered and annexed Oldenburg.
In Venice, Loredano kept a careful distance from the northern conflicts. He continued to implement the reform program and to expand trade in the Indian markets. The military was rebuilt, with careful attention paid to expanding the cavalry and artillery. Loredano also was becoming intrigued by reports of the Spanish and Portuguese colonies across the Atlantic, and began considering colonial plans of his own.
The expected war with Austria broke out on 19 September 1515, when Helvetia declared war on Austria; the rest of the alliance quickly followed suit. (Austria was involved in so many wars during the 15th and 16th centuries, against so many opponents, that historians often have trouble distinguishing among all the separate conflicts, and simply lump them together under the general heading of "the Austrian Wars". Venetian historians traditionally refer to this war as the "First Austrian War", since it was the first conflict Venice fought against her former ally; but it was actually just one phase of a general Central European conflict that lasted decades.) Austria had been faring badly against the enemies she already had; Bohemia occupied Ostmarch and was threatening Vienna, Savoy and France were besieging Torino in Piemonte and Milan in Liguria, and Bavaria occupied Tirol. Venice immediately marched on Steiermark, defeating the Austrian forces there on 1 November and initiating a siege at Graz. Meanwhile Denmark conquered and annexed Pommern on 3 December, moving the German coalition to make peace with the Danes on 29 December. Denmark now turned her attention to Sweden and Lithuania, declaring war on them on 30 May 1516.
The Austrians attacked the Venetians in Steiermark on 10 May 1516, breaking the siege of Graz and driving the Venetians back to Istria. Venice spent the remainder of 1516 regrouping, planning to invade Austria again the following spring. Yet another conflict erupted in February 1517, when Naples rebelled and declared independence from Spain; Loredano decided against inviting the Neapolitans into the alliance, not wishing to fight another two-front war. Naples instead allied with the German coalition. Hannover withdrew from the war against Austria on on 2 April 1517. Venice launched a second invasion of Steiermark in June, defeating the Austrian army and resuming the siege on 20 June. Austria attempted to recapture Steiermark twice in August and again in November, but the Venetians held their ground all three times, and remained in control of Steiermark for the remainder of the war. The Venetian alliance made peace with Austria on 9 February 1518 in exchange for reparations from Austria; the Venetian army evacuated Steiermark and returned home in triumph.
Venice was again technically at war again a few days later; on 12 February, Genoa declared war against the Golden Horde, which had been menacing the Genoese possessions on the Black Sea. Genoa called on her allies for support, which was duly given, though nobody seriously expected any of Genoa’s allies to send reinforcements all the way to the Black Sea. Meanwhile the Austrians made peace with the German coalition on 3 April.
Loredano was now able to focus his attention on Venice’s internal affairs, which fortunately had been going well; indeed, the treasury reported that sound fiscal management policies had strengthened the currency at a time when other European nations were experiencing rampant inflation. A grant of export licenses brought a welcome infusion of cash into the treasury in June 1518. The Venetians continued to expand in the marketplace, gaining a monopoly in the Spanish market and expanding trade in the Indian markets.
Carlos V of Spain rose to the throne of Austria on 14 January 1519, as Karl V. Spain recognized the independence of the Kingdom of Naples in a treaty signed on 8 March, although Spain retained ownership of the Neapolitan province of Apulia. On 14 March, Genoa made peace with the Golden Horde, and Venice was now officially at peace. Central Europe experienced a rare peaceful summer in 1519, which came to an end when Hessen, supported by allies in France, Auvergne, and Savoy, declared war on Austria and Poland on 10 September.
Loredano now turned his attention to other matters. He commissioned an expedition under Admiral Giovanni Ferrara to discover and explore new lands across the Atlantic, and negotiated a treaty with Portugal that would allow the expedition to use Portuguese harbors as bases. Ferrara was given three warships, which set sail from Lisbon into the unknown Atlantic on 28 September 1519.
After a brief stop in the Azores, Ferrara sailed westward. The first Venetian discovery in the Atlantic was Bermuda; while Venice was not the first European nation to sight the island, it remained unclaimed and unoccupied. The island was excellently sited to be a base for further westward exploration, so Ferrara turned back to Europe so that news of its discovery could be communicated to the Doge. After dispatching a message from Lisbon, Ferrara again headed west, this time raising the North American coast at Cape Hatteras. The exploration fleet turned south, mapping the North American coast as far south as the Savannah River. Ferrara did not go ashore in North America, but he noted several coastal settlements already established, flying the flag of England; the English had already claimed, and occupied, much of the North American coastline. Dismayed and low on supplies, Ferrara turned back to Europe.
Venice’s territory expanded again in 1520; on 16 July, Siena was formally annexed, adding two new provinces to the Republic. A new Emperor rose to the Ottoman throne on 23 September, Süleymân I Kanuni. And Venice went into mourning on 23 June 1521, upon the death of the Doge, Leonardo Loredano. Loredano had served Venice well during a difficult period, making a name for himself in the annals of Venetian history alongside Francisco Foscarini and Giovanni Barbango. During his twenty years as Doge, he had done much to reform the Venetian state, restoring public confidence at home and repairing Venice’s reputation abroad. Venice was now a wealthy, powerful, and respected nation, with a modern army and a vast trade network. He had done much to provide a solid foundation for future expansion of the Venetian Republic, and his successor, Antonio Grimani, had been left with a solid foundation to build upon.
Europe remained a confusing tangle of coalitions at war with one another. Hessen withdrew from the German war against Austria on 6 June 1514. On 24 July, Denmark declared war on Saxony, and the rest of the coalition of minor German states rushed to the defense of the Saxons. The following day a war broke out between Sweden and Poland, with Lithuania entering the war on the Swedish side and Austria on the Polish side. The German coalition suffered a major setback on 10 June 1515, when Denmark conquered and annexed Oldenburg.
In Venice, Loredano kept a careful distance from the northern conflicts. He continued to implement the reform program and to expand trade in the Indian markets. The military was rebuilt, with careful attention paid to expanding the cavalry and artillery. Loredano also was becoming intrigued by reports of the Spanish and Portuguese colonies across the Atlantic, and began considering colonial plans of his own.
The expected war with Austria broke out on 19 September 1515, when Helvetia declared war on Austria; the rest of the alliance quickly followed suit. (Austria was involved in so many wars during the 15th and 16th centuries, against so many opponents, that historians often have trouble distinguishing among all the separate conflicts, and simply lump them together under the general heading of "the Austrian Wars". Venetian historians traditionally refer to this war as the "First Austrian War", since it was the first conflict Venice fought against her former ally; but it was actually just one phase of a general Central European conflict that lasted decades.) Austria had been faring badly against the enemies she already had; Bohemia occupied Ostmarch and was threatening Vienna, Savoy and France were besieging Torino in Piemonte and Milan in Liguria, and Bavaria occupied Tirol. Venice immediately marched on Steiermark, defeating the Austrian forces there on 1 November and initiating a siege at Graz. Meanwhile Denmark conquered and annexed Pommern on 3 December, moving the German coalition to make peace with the Danes on 29 December. Denmark now turned her attention to Sweden and Lithuania, declaring war on them on 30 May 1516.
The Austrians attacked the Venetians in Steiermark on 10 May 1516, breaking the siege of Graz and driving the Venetians back to Istria. Venice spent the remainder of 1516 regrouping, planning to invade Austria again the following spring. Yet another conflict erupted in February 1517, when Naples rebelled and declared independence from Spain; Loredano decided against inviting the Neapolitans into the alliance, not wishing to fight another two-front war. Naples instead allied with the German coalition. Hannover withdrew from the war against Austria on on 2 April 1517. Venice launched a second invasion of Steiermark in June, defeating the Austrian army and resuming the siege on 20 June. Austria attempted to recapture Steiermark twice in August and again in November, but the Venetians held their ground all three times, and remained in control of Steiermark for the remainder of the war. The Venetian alliance made peace with Austria on 9 February 1518 in exchange for reparations from Austria; the Venetian army evacuated Steiermark and returned home in triumph.
Venice was again technically at war again a few days later; on 12 February, Genoa declared war against the Golden Horde, which had been menacing the Genoese possessions on the Black Sea. Genoa called on her allies for support, which was duly given, though nobody seriously expected any of Genoa’s allies to send reinforcements all the way to the Black Sea. Meanwhile the Austrians made peace with the German coalition on 3 April.
Loredano was now able to focus his attention on Venice’s internal affairs, which fortunately had been going well; indeed, the treasury reported that sound fiscal management policies had strengthened the currency at a time when other European nations were experiencing rampant inflation. A grant of export licenses brought a welcome infusion of cash into the treasury in June 1518. The Venetians continued to expand in the marketplace, gaining a monopoly in the Spanish market and expanding trade in the Indian markets.
Carlos V of Spain rose to the throne of Austria on 14 January 1519, as Karl V. Spain recognized the independence of the Kingdom of Naples in a treaty signed on 8 March, although Spain retained ownership of the Neapolitan province of Apulia. On 14 March, Genoa made peace with the Golden Horde, and Venice was now officially at peace. Central Europe experienced a rare peaceful summer in 1519, which came to an end when Hessen, supported by allies in France, Auvergne, and Savoy, declared war on Austria and Poland on 10 September.
Loredano now turned his attention to other matters. He commissioned an expedition under Admiral Giovanni Ferrara to discover and explore new lands across the Atlantic, and negotiated a treaty with Portugal that would allow the expedition to use Portuguese harbors as bases. Ferrara was given three warships, which set sail from Lisbon into the unknown Atlantic on 28 September 1519.
After a brief stop in the Azores, Ferrara sailed westward. The first Venetian discovery in the Atlantic was Bermuda; while Venice was not the first European nation to sight the island, it remained unclaimed and unoccupied. The island was excellently sited to be a base for further westward exploration, so Ferrara turned back to Europe so that news of its discovery could be communicated to the Doge. After dispatching a message from Lisbon, Ferrara again headed west, this time raising the North American coast at Cape Hatteras. The exploration fleet turned south, mapping the North American coast as far south as the Savannah River. Ferrara did not go ashore in North America, but he noted several coastal settlements already established, flying the flag of England; the English had already claimed, and occupied, much of the North American coastline. Dismayed and low on supplies, Ferrara turned back to Europe.
Venice’s territory expanded again in 1520; on 16 July, Siena was formally annexed, adding two new provinces to the Republic. A new Emperor rose to the Ottoman throne on 23 September, Süleymân I Kanuni. And Venice went into mourning on 23 June 1521, upon the death of the Doge, Leonardo Loredano. Loredano had served Venice well during a difficult period, making a name for himself in the annals of Venetian history alongside Francisco Foscarini and Giovanni Barbango. During his twenty years as Doge, he had done much to reform the Venetian state, restoring public confidence at home and repairing Venice’s reputation abroad. Venice was now a wealthy, powerful, and respected nation, with a modern army and a vast trade network. He had done much to provide a solid foundation for future expansion of the Venetian Republic, and his successor, Antonio Grimani, had been left with a solid foundation to build upon.
Chapter 10: The Fourth Balkan War and the Second Austrian War 1521 – 1526
Grimani spent a great deal of time on diplomacy. He negotiated military access treaties with Genoa and Naples in October 1521 and with Hungary in December 1522. Meanwhile, he was training troops and moving them into position in Ragusa, guarding against any incursions from the Ottomans while planning for a possible strike against them when the opportunity arose.
Austria’s war with the French-led coalition went badly. In April 1522 Karl V was able to buy peace with Savoy, but in July was forced to cede Alsace and Luxembourg to France. In October Austria finally brought this war to an end, but was forced to pay major reparations to Hessen. Karl was coming to regret Maximilian’s adventurism, which had alienated nearly all of Europe.
On 8 May 1523 Grimani stepped down and was succeeded as Doge by Andrea Gritti. Gritti was an able administrator and military leader, but was unpopular with some members of the Venetian nobility, who began inciting the people of the city of Venice against him. On 29 May, a large crowd demonstrating against Gritti in Venice exploded into a riot when the city police tried to disperse them; Gritti had to call in the army to take control. The city remained under martial law until 9 June.
Meanwhile, Austria was at war yet again; the coalition of Bavaria, Prussia, Bohemia, Saxony and Naples declared war on 5 June 1523. The war went very badly for Austria; by the end of the year, most of Austria was occupied by her enemies. Gritti kept a careful eye on the situation but did not intervene, because he had plans for a different war altogether. He believed Venice was finally up to the challenge of taking on the Ottoman Empire, and was waiting for the right moment. At the end of 1523 he could see it coming; in November, the Mameluks declared war on the Ottoman Empire, and Süleymân began shifting troops east to face the threat there.
On 30 January 1524, Gritti put his troops into motion, declaring war on the Ottomans; once again all Venice’s allies joined in. The fortress of Nish in Kosovo, by now familiar territory to the Venetians, was besieged on 13 February, while siege operations began in Macedonia on 24 March. The Ottomans counterattacked on 25 May, sending a force of 11,000 foot soldiers and cavalry into Macedonia, but were soundly beaten and made a disorderly retreat to Bulgaria. A second Ottoman attack on 10 June was also repelled. Nish fell on 24 June, while Thessaloniki fell a month later. Gritti ordered the force in Kosovo to advance into Bulgaria, defeating the Ottoman reserves encamped there on 26 September and laying siege to Sofia. Two days later, the Venetian army in Macedonia fought off another Ottoman attack.
Almost unnoticed in Venice at the time, but of great significance later, were a couple of other events that happened during the early part of the Fourth Balkan War. On 16 March 1524, Martin Luther nailed his 95 theses to the door of the castle church of Wittenberg, sparking the Protestant Reformation. And in the Atlantic, Venice founded her first overseas colony, setting up a small trading post on the island of Bermuda in July. Of more immediate concern to Gritti was the uprising in Rome on 1 October, which took nearly two weeks to suppress. And Ferrara began a new voyage of exploration of the American coast, which would eventually take him as far north as the English colony on Isle Royale.
Gritti next ordered his troops in Macedonia to advance into Thrace; they annihilated a small Ottoman army outside the walls of Constantinople on 2 November and began siege operations. Sofia fell on 26 March 1525, and Gritti sent reinforcements from Bulgaria to the siege force in Thrace. He also marched a small force into Albania to secure the Venetian rear; the Venetians defeated a small provincial garrison 30 April and began a siege of Durrës. Meanwhile, to the north, Hungarian forces successfully captured Wallachia.
2 May 1525 is one of the red-letter dates of Venetian history, for on that date, the Ottoman city of Constantinople surrendered to the Venetian army. Süleymân and his court made a hasty retreat to Anatolia, while the Venetians looted the city. One of their significant finds was an Ottoman map detailing the entire coast of Africa; the Venetians now had knowledge of a sea route to the East. They also had an overwhelmingly strong bargaining position, and pressed it to the hilt; Gritti sent an envoy to Süleymân, offering peace if he would cede Wallachia to Hungary and Kosovo and Macedonia to Venice. Süleymân rejected these terms, offering monetary reparations instead, and the process of negotiating a truce began.
Hungary was more than satisfied with the offer of Ottoman gold, and made a separate peace with Süleymân on 19 May. On 8 June, Süleymân made an offer that Gritti found irresistible: the Ottomans would cede Kosovo and the island of Cyprus to Venice. Venice had a long-standing claim to Cyprus, and had, in fact, used that claim to justify their declaration of war; it was a shrewd move on Süleymân’s part, since this would remove that Venetian complaint against the Ottomans. Gritti was well aware of the motivation behind Süleymân’s offer, but decided it was an excellent bargain for Venice anyway, and agreed. The Venetians evacuated Constantinople and marched home.
Back in Venice, the returning generals were given a hero’s welcome reminiscent of a Roman triumph. The city that had, two years earlier, rioted against Gritti, now hailed him as a national hero, the Conqueror of Constantinople. The only people not pleased were a band of religious dissenters in Istria, who had embraced Luther’s Protestant ideals; Gritti ordered the suppression of what was, to him and to the Catholic Church, a grievous heresy.
Venice had only two months of peace before a new, and not unexpected, war broke out. On 11 August, Helvetia declared war against Austria, and the alliance again mobilized for war. Austria was still reeling from her last war, which had ended in April when Austria was forced to cede Tirol to Bavaria; Karl was therefore unable to mount much of a defense against the invading Venetian alliance. Helvetia marched into Piemonte and laid siege to Torino, while Venice moved into Lombardy, besieging Milan on 9 November. A small, poorly trained Austrian force attempted to break out of Milan on 2 December, but was annihilated by the Venetians. A second Austrian attempt to relieve Milan was defeated on 15 January 1526. Meanwhile Gritti moved troops into Steiermark, besieging Graz on 18 January 1526. The Austrian province of Cologne declared independence in February 1526.
Gritti had to deal with two rebellions in early 1526, one in Siena in March and the other in Kosovo in April; both were quickly suppressed. Another Austrian attempt to relieve Steiermark was defeated on 16 April, but the siege force took many casualties, and Gritti moved in his reserves to reinforce them. Austria’s next attack in Steiermark, on 29 June, was quickly beaten back. Milan surrendered to Venice on 14 August, and Graz fell to the Venetians four days later.
Gritti made a peace offer to Karl, proposing that he cede Lombardy to Venice. Karl’s response was yet another attack in Steiermark on 18 August, which was again repulsed by the Venetians. Karl was nearly bankrupt, and did not have sufficient forces at his disposal to expel the Venetians from the territories they occupied, so Gritti was content to stand firm and wait for Karl to return to the negotiating table.
Then, overnight, the map of Europe changed dramatically. King Lajos II of Hungary died without issue on 29 August 1526, and Karl V of Austria was the heir to the Hungarian throne. Karl immediately annexed the Kingdom of Hungary to Austria and placed the Hungarian army under Austrian command. Bohemia was also, under the terms of his inheritance, to be a vassal state to Austria. Two large and powerful players in the Austrian war had abruptly switched sides, and Austria suddenly had an overwhelming advantage in manpower.
The German coalition led by Bavaria immediately sued for peace, and even invited Austria to join their alliance. Gritti made an offer of peace for the Venetian alliance, asking for monetary reparations, on 21 September; Karl initially rejected the Venetian terms, but then on 9 October he indicated that he found them acceptable. Gritti immediately concluded a treaty, and the Second Austrian War came to an end.
An uneasy peace now prevailed across Central Europe. Austria was now one of the most powerful nations in Europe, and Venice’s strongest ally had simply vanished overnight. The future of the Venetian Republic was clouded and uncertain.
Grimani spent a great deal of time on diplomacy. He negotiated military access treaties with Genoa and Naples in October 1521 and with Hungary in December 1522. Meanwhile, he was training troops and moving them into position in Ragusa, guarding against any incursions from the Ottomans while planning for a possible strike against them when the opportunity arose.
Austria’s war with the French-led coalition went badly. In April 1522 Karl V was able to buy peace with Savoy, but in July was forced to cede Alsace and Luxembourg to France. In October Austria finally brought this war to an end, but was forced to pay major reparations to Hessen. Karl was coming to regret Maximilian’s adventurism, which had alienated nearly all of Europe.
On 8 May 1523 Grimani stepped down and was succeeded as Doge by Andrea Gritti. Gritti was an able administrator and military leader, but was unpopular with some members of the Venetian nobility, who began inciting the people of the city of Venice against him. On 29 May, a large crowd demonstrating against Gritti in Venice exploded into a riot when the city police tried to disperse them; Gritti had to call in the army to take control. The city remained under martial law until 9 June.
Meanwhile, Austria was at war yet again; the coalition of Bavaria, Prussia, Bohemia, Saxony and Naples declared war on 5 June 1523. The war went very badly for Austria; by the end of the year, most of Austria was occupied by her enemies. Gritti kept a careful eye on the situation but did not intervene, because he had plans for a different war altogether. He believed Venice was finally up to the challenge of taking on the Ottoman Empire, and was waiting for the right moment. At the end of 1523 he could see it coming; in November, the Mameluks declared war on the Ottoman Empire, and Süleymân began shifting troops east to face the threat there.
On 30 January 1524, Gritti put his troops into motion, declaring war on the Ottomans; once again all Venice’s allies joined in. The fortress of Nish in Kosovo, by now familiar territory to the Venetians, was besieged on 13 February, while siege operations began in Macedonia on 24 March. The Ottomans counterattacked on 25 May, sending a force of 11,000 foot soldiers and cavalry into Macedonia, but were soundly beaten and made a disorderly retreat to Bulgaria. A second Ottoman attack on 10 June was also repelled. Nish fell on 24 June, while Thessaloniki fell a month later. Gritti ordered the force in Kosovo to advance into Bulgaria, defeating the Ottoman reserves encamped there on 26 September and laying siege to Sofia. Two days later, the Venetian army in Macedonia fought off another Ottoman attack.
Almost unnoticed in Venice at the time, but of great significance later, were a couple of other events that happened during the early part of the Fourth Balkan War. On 16 March 1524, Martin Luther nailed his 95 theses to the door of the castle church of Wittenberg, sparking the Protestant Reformation. And in the Atlantic, Venice founded her first overseas colony, setting up a small trading post on the island of Bermuda in July. Of more immediate concern to Gritti was the uprising in Rome on 1 October, which took nearly two weeks to suppress. And Ferrara began a new voyage of exploration of the American coast, which would eventually take him as far north as the English colony on Isle Royale.
Gritti next ordered his troops in Macedonia to advance into Thrace; they annihilated a small Ottoman army outside the walls of Constantinople on 2 November and began siege operations. Sofia fell on 26 March 1525, and Gritti sent reinforcements from Bulgaria to the siege force in Thrace. He also marched a small force into Albania to secure the Venetian rear; the Venetians defeated a small provincial garrison 30 April and began a siege of Durrës. Meanwhile, to the north, Hungarian forces successfully captured Wallachia.
2 May 1525 is one of the red-letter dates of Venetian history, for on that date, the Ottoman city of Constantinople surrendered to the Venetian army. Süleymân and his court made a hasty retreat to Anatolia, while the Venetians looted the city. One of their significant finds was an Ottoman map detailing the entire coast of Africa; the Venetians now had knowledge of a sea route to the East. They also had an overwhelmingly strong bargaining position, and pressed it to the hilt; Gritti sent an envoy to Süleymân, offering peace if he would cede Wallachia to Hungary and Kosovo and Macedonia to Venice. Süleymân rejected these terms, offering monetary reparations instead, and the process of negotiating a truce began.
Hungary was more than satisfied with the offer of Ottoman gold, and made a separate peace with Süleymân on 19 May. On 8 June, Süleymân made an offer that Gritti found irresistible: the Ottomans would cede Kosovo and the island of Cyprus to Venice. Venice had a long-standing claim to Cyprus, and had, in fact, used that claim to justify their declaration of war; it was a shrewd move on Süleymân’s part, since this would remove that Venetian complaint against the Ottomans. Gritti was well aware of the motivation behind Süleymân’s offer, but decided it was an excellent bargain for Venice anyway, and agreed. The Venetians evacuated Constantinople and marched home.
Back in Venice, the returning generals were given a hero’s welcome reminiscent of a Roman triumph. The city that had, two years earlier, rioted against Gritti, now hailed him as a national hero, the Conqueror of Constantinople. The only people not pleased were a band of religious dissenters in Istria, who had embraced Luther’s Protestant ideals; Gritti ordered the suppression of what was, to him and to the Catholic Church, a grievous heresy.
Venice had only two months of peace before a new, and not unexpected, war broke out. On 11 August, Helvetia declared war against Austria, and the alliance again mobilized for war. Austria was still reeling from her last war, which had ended in April when Austria was forced to cede Tirol to Bavaria; Karl was therefore unable to mount much of a defense against the invading Venetian alliance. Helvetia marched into Piemonte and laid siege to Torino, while Venice moved into Lombardy, besieging Milan on 9 November. A small, poorly trained Austrian force attempted to break out of Milan on 2 December, but was annihilated by the Venetians. A second Austrian attempt to relieve Milan was defeated on 15 January 1526. Meanwhile Gritti moved troops into Steiermark, besieging Graz on 18 January 1526. The Austrian province of Cologne declared independence in February 1526.
Gritti had to deal with two rebellions in early 1526, one in Siena in March and the other in Kosovo in April; both were quickly suppressed. Another Austrian attempt to relieve Steiermark was defeated on 16 April, but the siege force took many casualties, and Gritti moved in his reserves to reinforce them. Austria’s next attack in Steiermark, on 29 June, was quickly beaten back. Milan surrendered to Venice on 14 August, and Graz fell to the Venetians four days later.
Gritti made a peace offer to Karl, proposing that he cede Lombardy to Venice. Karl’s response was yet another attack in Steiermark on 18 August, which was again repulsed by the Venetians. Karl was nearly bankrupt, and did not have sufficient forces at his disposal to expel the Venetians from the territories they occupied, so Gritti was content to stand firm and wait for Karl to return to the negotiating table.
Then, overnight, the map of Europe changed dramatically. King Lajos II of Hungary died without issue on 29 August 1526, and Karl V of Austria was the heir to the Hungarian throne. Karl immediately annexed the Kingdom of Hungary to Austria and placed the Hungarian army under Austrian command. Bohemia was also, under the terms of his inheritance, to be a vassal state to Austria. Two large and powerful players in the Austrian war had abruptly switched sides, and Austria suddenly had an overwhelming advantage in manpower.
The German coalition led by Bavaria immediately sued for peace, and even invited Austria to join their alliance. Gritti made an offer of peace for the Venetian alliance, asking for monetary reparations, on 21 September; Karl initially rejected the Venetian terms, but then on 9 October he indicated that he found them acceptable. Gritti immediately concluded a treaty, and the Second Austrian War came to an end.
An uneasy peace now prevailed across Central Europe. Austria was now one of the most powerful nations in Europe, and Venice’s strongest ally had simply vanished overnight. The future of the Venetian Republic was clouded and uncertain.
I'd be shaking in my boots if I was the Naples monarch right now, though maybe Austria is danger enough to keep you honest...time to send ducats their way methinks and bide your time until either (a) you BB is a bit lower, or (b) Austria is engaged elsewhere and con't actually do anything to you until it's too late.
Glad to see the update...was suffering VAARWS (Venitian After Action Report Withdrawal Syndrome)...but it was woth the wait.
Glad to see the update...was suffering VAARWS (Venitian After Action Report Withdrawal Syndrome)...but it was woth the wait.
Keep up the good work. Unifiying the penninsula is a long, bloody process, although I've gotten it done within 100 years. But when you're finished... God help you if you mess with Italy!
Chapter 11: The Long Peace and North American Exploration 1526 - 1540
The period immediately following the Hapsburg inheritance of Hungary was a time of readjustment in Europe. Karl V, finding that Austria needed time to digest her latest acquisitions, focused his attention on diplomacy and internal affairs. For Venice, this was to be the longest uninterrupted period of peace the Republic had known in over a century.
Andrea Gritti began a reform of the Venetian legal system in May 1527, appointing chief judges in a number of provinces to ensure the efficient administration of justice. He also began aggressively defending the Venetian merchant empire, which had been neglected as a result of the many wars; Venice was beginning to lose ground in some of the eastern markets, where competition was becoming fierce. And he put a renewed focus on western colonization, expanding the Bermuda colony.
The remaining wars in Central Europe were slowly coming to an end. Austria made peace with Helvetia in May 1527, paying reparations. Austria then recaptured her breakaway province of Cologne in November 1528. Gritti attempted several times to improve diplomatic relations with Austria, but was unsuccessful, and relations between the two nations would remain cold for the remainder of the 16th century.
1529 was uneventful for Venice, apart from a successful land reclamation project in Morea that greatly expanded the vineyards. Venice was by this time the largest producer of wine in Europe, and was becoming renowned across Europe for the quality of her vintages. Gritti began a project to expand Venice’s sugar trade, constructing a refinery in Crete.
In 1530 Gritti began an effort to extend Venetian trade into the English markets, which were expanding rapidly as a result of England’s North American colonization. He also had two peasant revolts to deal with in 1530, one in Siena in June and the other in Kosovo in November. 1531 saw more trouble among the peasants, this time in Romagna; the Romagnan peasants brought a petition for redress before the Senate, asking for relief from excessive taxation. Gritti summarily denied the petition, leading to a violent revolt in late January 1531 that took nearly four weeks to suppress. April 1532 brought another revolt, in Rome, which was quickly crushed. Gritti did not spend all of his time merely crushing revolts, however, but took time for more refined matters as well. In 1533 he made a major contribution to Venetian culture by bringing the great painter, sculptor and architect Michelangelo Buonarotti to Venice. Michelangelo remains most famous for his Sistine Chapel paintings in Rome, but his work in Venice, particularly on the construction of the new Doge’s palace and his marble statue of Gritti, are Venetian cultural treasures to this day.
Meanwhile, the Protestant Reformation was sweeping across Northern Europe. Denmark and Sweden became Protestant nations in 1531. England converted in 1532, Prussia and Hannover in 1534, and Saxony and Bohemia in 1535. And a new menace was growing far to the east. Persia was undergoing a dramatic imperial expansion at this time, conquering the western shore of the Caspian Sea and setting her sights on the Caucasus. With her Mameluk allies, Persia began escalating tensions along the Ottoman Empire’s eastern border; this distracted the Ottomans from their European territories and gave Venice time to plan her next move against them.
In 1536, Gritti commissioned an expedition to explore the North American continent under Tommaso Molini. The expedition set sail in September 1536, wintering in Bermuda before landing on the North American mainland in Penobscot in 1537. During the next two years, the expedition mapped much of the Saint Lawrence River valley, paving the way for future Venetian colonization in that region.
In 1538, Persia and the Mameluks declared war upon the Ak Koyunlu, an Ottoman vassal; Süüleymân quickly rushed to his vassal’s defense. The fighting on the Ottoman’s eastern frontier was fierce, and soon Süüleymân’s western border was nearly stripped of troops as reinforcements were sent east. This was too tempting a situation for Austria and her new ally Poland; in January 1539, they declared war on the Ottomans. Gritti knew it would be only a matter of time before Venice entered the war, and began raising new armies and shifting troops into Kosovo. But the Doge fell ill in mid-1539, dying on 30 December. Gritti was succeeded by Pietro Lando.
Lando’s first act was to appoint Leonardo Foscolo as field marshal over the Venetian armies in the East. Within a month, Foscolo had to put down a peasant revolt in Kosovo. Austria made peace with the Ottomans in June 1540, and the Ottomans once again began shifting their troops to the war on their eastern frontier; Foscolo began moving his troops to the border, awaiting the order to strike. Lando was preoccupied for a time on internal affairs, dealing with tensions among the clergy. He also founded the first Venetian colony on the North American mainland, establishing a trading post in Penobscot in July. But finally, on 21 September, Foscolo received his orders to march into Ottoman territory. Venice’s long season of peace was over, and the Fifth Balkan War had begun.
The period immediately following the Hapsburg inheritance of Hungary was a time of readjustment in Europe. Karl V, finding that Austria needed time to digest her latest acquisitions, focused his attention on diplomacy and internal affairs. For Venice, this was to be the longest uninterrupted period of peace the Republic had known in over a century.
Andrea Gritti began a reform of the Venetian legal system in May 1527, appointing chief judges in a number of provinces to ensure the efficient administration of justice. He also began aggressively defending the Venetian merchant empire, which had been neglected as a result of the many wars; Venice was beginning to lose ground in some of the eastern markets, where competition was becoming fierce. And he put a renewed focus on western colonization, expanding the Bermuda colony.
The remaining wars in Central Europe were slowly coming to an end. Austria made peace with Helvetia in May 1527, paying reparations. Austria then recaptured her breakaway province of Cologne in November 1528. Gritti attempted several times to improve diplomatic relations with Austria, but was unsuccessful, and relations between the two nations would remain cold for the remainder of the 16th century.
1529 was uneventful for Venice, apart from a successful land reclamation project in Morea that greatly expanded the vineyards. Venice was by this time the largest producer of wine in Europe, and was becoming renowned across Europe for the quality of her vintages. Gritti began a project to expand Venice’s sugar trade, constructing a refinery in Crete.
In 1530 Gritti began an effort to extend Venetian trade into the English markets, which were expanding rapidly as a result of England’s North American colonization. He also had two peasant revolts to deal with in 1530, one in Siena in June and the other in Kosovo in November. 1531 saw more trouble among the peasants, this time in Romagna; the Romagnan peasants brought a petition for redress before the Senate, asking for relief from excessive taxation. Gritti summarily denied the petition, leading to a violent revolt in late January 1531 that took nearly four weeks to suppress. April 1532 brought another revolt, in Rome, which was quickly crushed. Gritti did not spend all of his time merely crushing revolts, however, but took time for more refined matters as well. In 1533 he made a major contribution to Venetian culture by bringing the great painter, sculptor and architect Michelangelo Buonarotti to Venice. Michelangelo remains most famous for his Sistine Chapel paintings in Rome, but his work in Venice, particularly on the construction of the new Doge’s palace and his marble statue of Gritti, are Venetian cultural treasures to this day.
Meanwhile, the Protestant Reformation was sweeping across Northern Europe. Denmark and Sweden became Protestant nations in 1531. England converted in 1532, Prussia and Hannover in 1534, and Saxony and Bohemia in 1535. And a new menace was growing far to the east. Persia was undergoing a dramatic imperial expansion at this time, conquering the western shore of the Caspian Sea and setting her sights on the Caucasus. With her Mameluk allies, Persia began escalating tensions along the Ottoman Empire’s eastern border; this distracted the Ottomans from their European territories and gave Venice time to plan her next move against them.
In 1536, Gritti commissioned an expedition to explore the North American continent under Tommaso Molini. The expedition set sail in September 1536, wintering in Bermuda before landing on the North American mainland in Penobscot in 1537. During the next two years, the expedition mapped much of the Saint Lawrence River valley, paving the way for future Venetian colonization in that region.
In 1538, Persia and the Mameluks declared war upon the Ak Koyunlu, an Ottoman vassal; Süüleymân quickly rushed to his vassal’s defense. The fighting on the Ottoman’s eastern frontier was fierce, and soon Süüleymân’s western border was nearly stripped of troops as reinforcements were sent east. This was too tempting a situation for Austria and her new ally Poland; in January 1539, they declared war on the Ottomans. Gritti knew it would be only a matter of time before Venice entered the war, and began raising new armies and shifting troops into Kosovo. But the Doge fell ill in mid-1539, dying on 30 December. Gritti was succeeded by Pietro Lando.
Lando’s first act was to appoint Leonardo Foscolo as field marshal over the Venetian armies in the East. Within a month, Foscolo had to put down a peasant revolt in Kosovo. Austria made peace with the Ottomans in June 1540, and the Ottomans once again began shifting their troops to the war on their eastern frontier; Foscolo began moving his troops to the border, awaiting the order to strike. Lando was preoccupied for a time on internal affairs, dealing with tensions among the clergy. He also founded the first Venetian colony on the North American mainland, establishing a trading post in Penobscot in July. But finally, on 21 September, Foscolo received his orders to march into Ottoman territory. Venice’s long season of peace was over, and the Fifth Balkan War had begun.
Chapter 12: The Fifth Balkan War and Colonial Expansion 1540 - 1556
Foscolo moved quickly into Macedonia, besieging Thessaloniki on 11 October 1540, while another army under the command of Francesco Venier marched into Bulgaria, commencing a siege at Sofia on 26 October. The Venetian fleet quickly established naval supremacy in the Aegean, defeating a larger but technologically inferior Ottoman fleet on 22 January 1541. Meanwhile, Süleymân’s eastern war came to an end, with Ak Koyunlu ceding Georgia to Persia; Süleymân began marching his armies west. A small Ottoman fleet attempting to run the Venetian blockade of the Aegean was annihilated on 8 March, and a second Ottoman fleet was destroyed on 14 March.
Thessaloniki fell to the Venetians on 11 March, while Sofia was captured on 26 April. Foscolo marched his Macedonian army into Thrace, defeating an Ottoman army encamped outside of Constantinople commencing a siege on 8 May. Venier moved his army into Rumelia, placing Varna under siege on 23 May. But the Ottoman reinforcements were approaching from the east, and Foscolo knew they would outnumber his own troops, so he proposed peace to Süleymân on 26 May. Süleymân agreed to the terms, which were that he would cede Bulgaria to Venice. The brief but highly successful Fifth Balkan war was at an end.
Pietro Lando now focused upon the new territories across the Atlantic. A trading post was founded at Sebago in August 1541. He began making plans to establish a more permanent settlement in North America, hoping to prevent the English from completely dominating the continent. Venice also made a tentative foray into Africa, establishing a trading post in Senegal in June 1542. The new province of Bulgaria remained unsettled for quite some time, revolting in July 1542 and March 1543. Lando also made efforts to expand fortresses throughout the Republic’s territories, building fortifications in Crete, Bulgaria, Istria, and Ragusa.
Rome had a brief uprising in December 1544, which was quickly suppressed; Kosovo then rebelled in June 1545, and was also quickly brought back under control. Lando implemented an internal trade ordinance in March 1545 which improved Venice’s economy, and also worked aggressively to maintain Venice’s footholds in the eastern markets, which were experiencing increasing competition.
On 12 November 1545, Lando stepped down as Doge, and was succeeded by Franco Donato, an able diplomat and administrator. Donato scored an immediate diplomatic success, signing a treaty that made the Kingdom of Naples a vassal of Venice. Venice was slowly moving closer to becoming the first nation since the Roman Empire to unite the Italian peninsula under one government. The North American colonization effort bore fruit in March 1546, when the colonial settlement on Nova Trento was established on the site of the trading post in Penobscot.
A new war broke out between the Ottoman Empire and Persia in April 1546, when the Persians and Mameluks invaded Ak Koyunlu. This caused much anxiety in the Balkan provinces, where the peasantry was fearful of another war. The peasants’ discontent grew after a meteor was seen across a broad swath of Venetian territory in the Balkans on the night of 28 August; this was interpreted as an evil omen, and the unrest grew into open revolt in Kosovo in April 1547. The revolt took 10 days to suppress. (A large fragment, weighing more than 75 kilograms, of what is believed to be the 1546 meteorite was found in Rumelia in 1987; it is now on display at the National Museum.) The Ottomans withdrew from the war in December 1547, after losing Armenia to Persia; Ak Koyunlu and Persia continued the war, but the Ak Koyunlu fared very badly against the Persians.
Donato continued the Venetian policy of aggressive mercantile expansion, supporting the Venetian merchants in the intensely competitive markets of Samarkand. In June 1547, a monopoly license was granted to a consortium of Venetian merchants for eastern trade, and in 1548 export licenses were granted to the Venetian East India Company.
Religious affairs in Europe became even more strained in 1548, when Jean Calvin founded his Reformed Church in France and John Knox began preaching Presbyterianism in Scotland. In April 1548, the English-ruled continental province of Orleans declared independence as the "Catholic Kingdom of France"; by September, they had been annexed by the French crown. Fortunately Venice, with a long history of religious toleration, experienced little of the religious strife that engulfed the rest of Europe.
Poland and Austria declared war against the Ottoman Empire and its allies Ak Koyunlu and Crimea in September 1548. Ak Koyunlu’s war with Persia finally ended the following month, with Ak Koyunlu ceding Trabzon to Persia. In December 1548, Sardinia declared independence from England; Venice immediately established diplomatic relations with the new kingdom, and invited the Sardinians to join the Venetian alliance; however, Sardinia was jealous of her new-found independence, and declined the offer. This was ultimately Sardinia’s loss, because England recaptured Sardinia within ten months. Meanwhile Austria conquered and annexed Crimea in May 1549.
1550 saw a major corruption scandal erupt in the Venetian treasury; Donato spent much effort eradicating the problem. Field Marshal Leonardo Foscolo died in Bulgaria on 12 November; Bulgarian dissidents took this as the cue for a general uprising in December, but the revolt was crushed in days. 1551 was a better year for Venice, with a successful land reform project in Cyprus and an expansion of the Bermuda colony. In 1552, a technological advance in bronze casting allowed the Venetian navy to mount heavier cannons aboard their warships; this gave the Venetians a decisive advantage over their potential opponents.
In 1553 the growing European religious strife began affecting Venice when Antonio Frontieri, a Calvinist preacher, began preaching Reformist sermons in Emilia. Donato bowed to pressure from the Catholic Church and imprisoned Frontieri in late January. This brought him praise from the Church, but increasing criticism from the Senate, particularly from the Orthodox members, who feared any reduction of Venice’s historic religious tolerance. Donato resigned under pressure on 24 May 1553, and was succeeded by Francesco Venier, one of the generals of the Fifth Balkan War.
In June, Austria’s war with the Ottoman Empire finally ended, with the Ottomans paying major reparations. News came from England in July that Queen Mary had restored Catholicism as the official religion of England upon her ascension to the throne; relations with the English, which had become strained under Henry VIII, began to warm. August saw a new outbreak of unrest in Bulgaria, but the province was brought back under control within ten days. In October, Crimea declared independence from Austria; Poland did not wish to support Austria in her war to regain control of Crimea, and withdrew from her alliance with Austria. Venier immediately began negotiations with Poland, which resulted in Poland joining the Venetian military alliance on 28 October 1553.
In November 1553, a new Ottoman-Persian war broke out. Venice once again put her troops on the eastern border on alert, but Venier made no plans to attack the Ottomans. On the night of 1 February 1554, another bright meteor was seen, this time over Dalmatia, and was again interpreted as an evil omen; but no rebellions broke out on this occasion. In November, the restless Bulgarian peasantry staged another abortive uprising; and then they rose up again in March 1555. Venier was forced to maintain a large army in Bulgaria for many years to come.
1555 saw renewed development of Venice’s overseas colonies, with the trading posts in Senegal and Sebago being expanded. In December, Antonio Frontieri, who had been released from prison the previous year, was again charged with preaching Reformist sermons against the Church; but Venier refused to allow him to be imprisoned. Tensions between Church and Senate, and among the various religious factions in the Republic, soared, but never erupted into open violence in Venice the way they were prone to do in other European nations at this time. By June 1556, Venier had had enough of the strains of running the Republic, and stepped down. He was succeeded by Laurenti Priuli, an extraordinarily talented administrator.
September 1556 saw major changes in the map of Europe. Carlos V of Spain (who was also Karl V of Austria) abdicated on 30 September. Felipe II succeeded him as king of Spain, while Ferdinand I became king of Austria. In the division of the Hapsburg kingdoms, all of Austria’s provinces in the Netherlands and northern Italy were transferred to Spanish rule.
Foscolo moved quickly into Macedonia, besieging Thessaloniki on 11 October 1540, while another army under the command of Francesco Venier marched into Bulgaria, commencing a siege at Sofia on 26 October. The Venetian fleet quickly established naval supremacy in the Aegean, defeating a larger but technologically inferior Ottoman fleet on 22 January 1541. Meanwhile, Süleymân’s eastern war came to an end, with Ak Koyunlu ceding Georgia to Persia; Süleymân began marching his armies west. A small Ottoman fleet attempting to run the Venetian blockade of the Aegean was annihilated on 8 March, and a second Ottoman fleet was destroyed on 14 March.
Thessaloniki fell to the Venetians on 11 March, while Sofia was captured on 26 April. Foscolo marched his Macedonian army into Thrace, defeating an Ottoman army encamped outside of Constantinople commencing a siege on 8 May. Venier moved his army into Rumelia, placing Varna under siege on 23 May. But the Ottoman reinforcements were approaching from the east, and Foscolo knew they would outnumber his own troops, so he proposed peace to Süleymân on 26 May. Süleymân agreed to the terms, which were that he would cede Bulgaria to Venice. The brief but highly successful Fifth Balkan war was at an end.
Pietro Lando now focused upon the new territories across the Atlantic. A trading post was founded at Sebago in August 1541. He began making plans to establish a more permanent settlement in North America, hoping to prevent the English from completely dominating the continent. Venice also made a tentative foray into Africa, establishing a trading post in Senegal in June 1542. The new province of Bulgaria remained unsettled for quite some time, revolting in July 1542 and March 1543. Lando also made efforts to expand fortresses throughout the Republic’s territories, building fortifications in Crete, Bulgaria, Istria, and Ragusa.
Rome had a brief uprising in December 1544, which was quickly suppressed; Kosovo then rebelled in June 1545, and was also quickly brought back under control. Lando implemented an internal trade ordinance in March 1545 which improved Venice’s economy, and also worked aggressively to maintain Venice’s footholds in the eastern markets, which were experiencing increasing competition.
On 12 November 1545, Lando stepped down as Doge, and was succeeded by Franco Donato, an able diplomat and administrator. Donato scored an immediate diplomatic success, signing a treaty that made the Kingdom of Naples a vassal of Venice. Venice was slowly moving closer to becoming the first nation since the Roman Empire to unite the Italian peninsula under one government. The North American colonization effort bore fruit in March 1546, when the colonial settlement on Nova Trento was established on the site of the trading post in Penobscot.
A new war broke out between the Ottoman Empire and Persia in April 1546, when the Persians and Mameluks invaded Ak Koyunlu. This caused much anxiety in the Balkan provinces, where the peasantry was fearful of another war. The peasants’ discontent grew after a meteor was seen across a broad swath of Venetian territory in the Balkans on the night of 28 August; this was interpreted as an evil omen, and the unrest grew into open revolt in Kosovo in April 1547. The revolt took 10 days to suppress. (A large fragment, weighing more than 75 kilograms, of what is believed to be the 1546 meteorite was found in Rumelia in 1987; it is now on display at the National Museum.) The Ottomans withdrew from the war in December 1547, after losing Armenia to Persia; Ak Koyunlu and Persia continued the war, but the Ak Koyunlu fared very badly against the Persians.
Donato continued the Venetian policy of aggressive mercantile expansion, supporting the Venetian merchants in the intensely competitive markets of Samarkand. In June 1547, a monopoly license was granted to a consortium of Venetian merchants for eastern trade, and in 1548 export licenses were granted to the Venetian East India Company.
Religious affairs in Europe became even more strained in 1548, when Jean Calvin founded his Reformed Church in France and John Knox began preaching Presbyterianism in Scotland. In April 1548, the English-ruled continental province of Orleans declared independence as the "Catholic Kingdom of France"; by September, they had been annexed by the French crown. Fortunately Venice, with a long history of religious toleration, experienced little of the religious strife that engulfed the rest of Europe.
Poland and Austria declared war against the Ottoman Empire and its allies Ak Koyunlu and Crimea in September 1548. Ak Koyunlu’s war with Persia finally ended the following month, with Ak Koyunlu ceding Trabzon to Persia. In December 1548, Sardinia declared independence from England; Venice immediately established diplomatic relations with the new kingdom, and invited the Sardinians to join the Venetian alliance; however, Sardinia was jealous of her new-found independence, and declined the offer. This was ultimately Sardinia’s loss, because England recaptured Sardinia within ten months. Meanwhile Austria conquered and annexed Crimea in May 1549.
1550 saw a major corruption scandal erupt in the Venetian treasury; Donato spent much effort eradicating the problem. Field Marshal Leonardo Foscolo died in Bulgaria on 12 November; Bulgarian dissidents took this as the cue for a general uprising in December, but the revolt was crushed in days. 1551 was a better year for Venice, with a successful land reform project in Cyprus and an expansion of the Bermuda colony. In 1552, a technological advance in bronze casting allowed the Venetian navy to mount heavier cannons aboard their warships; this gave the Venetians a decisive advantage over their potential opponents.
In 1553 the growing European religious strife began affecting Venice when Antonio Frontieri, a Calvinist preacher, began preaching Reformist sermons in Emilia. Donato bowed to pressure from the Catholic Church and imprisoned Frontieri in late January. This brought him praise from the Church, but increasing criticism from the Senate, particularly from the Orthodox members, who feared any reduction of Venice’s historic religious tolerance. Donato resigned under pressure on 24 May 1553, and was succeeded by Francesco Venier, one of the generals of the Fifth Balkan War.
In June, Austria’s war with the Ottoman Empire finally ended, with the Ottomans paying major reparations. News came from England in July that Queen Mary had restored Catholicism as the official religion of England upon her ascension to the throne; relations with the English, which had become strained under Henry VIII, began to warm. August saw a new outbreak of unrest in Bulgaria, but the province was brought back under control within ten days. In October, Crimea declared independence from Austria; Poland did not wish to support Austria in her war to regain control of Crimea, and withdrew from her alliance with Austria. Venier immediately began negotiations with Poland, which resulted in Poland joining the Venetian military alliance on 28 October 1553.
In November 1553, a new Ottoman-Persian war broke out. Venice once again put her troops on the eastern border on alert, but Venier made no plans to attack the Ottomans. On the night of 1 February 1554, another bright meteor was seen, this time over Dalmatia, and was again interpreted as an evil omen; but no rebellions broke out on this occasion. In November, the restless Bulgarian peasantry staged another abortive uprising; and then they rose up again in March 1555. Venier was forced to maintain a large army in Bulgaria for many years to come.
1555 saw renewed development of Venice’s overseas colonies, with the trading posts in Senegal and Sebago being expanded. In December, Antonio Frontieri, who had been released from prison the previous year, was again charged with preaching Reformist sermons against the Church; but Venier refused to allow him to be imprisoned. Tensions between Church and Senate, and among the various religious factions in the Republic, soared, but never erupted into open violence in Venice the way they were prone to do in other European nations at this time. By June 1556, Venier had had enough of the strains of running the Republic, and stepped down. He was succeeded by Laurenti Priuli, an extraordinarily talented administrator.
September 1556 saw major changes in the map of Europe. Carlos V of Spain (who was also Karl V of Austria) abdicated on 30 September. Felipe II succeeded him as king of Spain, while Ferdinand I became king of Austria. In the division of the Hapsburg kingdoms, all of Austria’s provinces in the Netherlands and northern Italy were transferred to Spanish rule.
Well, Mr. T, you called it again - I behaved myself to let my BB go down. I actually got all the way back to "honorable" before I launched that unprovoked war on the OE; wish I'd gotten more than just Bulgaria for my tarnished reputation, but that's the breaks sometimes. Surprisingly, Austria became extremely well-behaved under Karl V (maybe not so surprising, since I checked and Austria's BB was up to 48 after the inheritance of Hungary - "worse than dishonorable scum").
The next installment ought to be along before too long; I've played ahead as far as 1612, so I have plenty of material to work with.
The next installment ought to be along before too long; I've played ahead as far as 1612, so I have plenty of material to work with.
Now I'm thinking that a wedge needs to be driven between Poland and Austria...mighty long border you've got there Any way to pry the two apart and cut that down a bit?
On the other hand, Genoa's CoT is looking mighty enticing :very_evil_smilie: Don't focus too much of your attention on uncontested lands or you'll pay the price.
Enjoyed this installment greatly. Looking forward to the events of the next 50ish years which will certainly be the telling point for the doge. Man or mouse...oops, been reading too much about Bobby
Any way to pry the two apart and cut that down a bit?On the other hand, Genoa's CoT is looking mighty enticing :very_evil_smilie: Don't focus too much of your attention on uncontested lands or you'll pay the price.
Enjoyed this installment greatly. Looking forward to the events of the next 50ish years which will certainly be the telling point for the doge. Man or mouse...oops, been reading too much about Bobby
Chapter 13: The First Lithuanian War and the Sixth Balkan War 1556 - 1571
Despite Laurenti Priuli’s administrative talents, his government experienced a nearly unbroken series of failures. Priuli began making diplomatic overtures to Genoa in late 1556, with an eye towards making Genoa a vassal of Venice. The Genoese, however, were not interested in becoming another Venetian satellite state, wishing to preserve their independence; diplomatic relations between the two Italian states cooled noticeably for the next several years. Venetian trade also suffered during his rule, being driven entirely out of the Delhi markets and suffering from severe competition throughout Europe and the Near East. Priuli’s one notable success was in expanding the Venetian trading post in Senegal in 1557.
In July 1559 Senatorial opposition to Laurenti Priuli’s government began to increase as a result of the failure of his major policy initiatives, and he was forced to resign on 18 August. He was succeeded as Doge by his brother (and longtime political rival) Girolamo Priuli. The new doge immediately went on the offensive in the marketplace, subsidizing aggressive competition by Venetian merchants in every major marketplace.
Priuli also dispatched Venetian troops to Senegal to defend the trading post against the possibility of attack by hostile natives. They arrived just in time to fight off an attack from an unexpected direction. The Venetian presence in Africa was in technical violation of the Treaty of Tordesillas, which reserved the right to colonize Africa to the Portuguese, and Portugal was determined to drive out all interlopers in what was supposedly their territory. The Portuguese attacked the Senegal trading post on 7 November 1560, but were beaten back with heavy losses. However, a second attack by the Portuguese on 30 June 1561 resulted in the trading post being burned to the ground; the Venetian attempt to colonize North Africa was finished.
However, in the Americas, where a bankrupt Spain was unable to enforce her territorial claims under the Treaty of Tordesillas, the Venetians fared better. Priuli sent more colonists to expand the settlements in Bermuda and Penobscot, and also expanded the Sebago trading post. Plans were drawn up to colonize even more of the North American mainland, and troops were sent to Penobscot to help enforce the Venetian claims and defend against the possibility of native attack (or from attack by the English, who were also aggressively colonizing in the same region.)
Priuli also worked to shore up Venice’s domestic economy, passing internal trade ordinances to increase tax revenue. He had to deal with a two-week-long revolt in Emilia in March 1562; a large number of Emilians had converted to Protestantism, and were unhappy with the Venetian government’s lack of tolerance for their dissident religion. However, Venice never experienced the sort of religious conflict that was at this time causing France to dissolve into chaos; the French nation would come close to complete disintegration over the next few years.
December 1562 saw a deadly outbreak of plague on Corfu. Luckily it was confined to the island, and never spread to the mainland; but the population of Corfu suffered from horrendous mortality; nearly 5000 of the island’s 8000 inhabitants died in the plague and the resulting famine.
1563 was a better year for Venice. New trading posts were established in Stadacone and Bas St.-Laurent, and a treaty was signed with the Lenape tribe to permit free passage of Venetians through their lands. This allowed Venice to become the first European nation to have traders attend the Indian trading potlatch on the island of Manhattan; this foothold in the North American market would prove to be quite lucrative. In March 1564 a Venetian fleet successfully drove out a band of pirates who had been harassing the North American coast, and in September Venice founded a new trading post in Gaspésie.
Trouble returned to Venice’s borders in June 1564, when the Dutchy of Milan revolted against Spanish rule. Priuli attempted to open up diplomatic relations with the newly independent state, and offered them a place in the Venetian alliance, but the Milanese refused to have any friendly dealings with their powerful neighbor.
The Venetian colonial empire in North America expanded again in 1566, with a trading post established in Ticonderoga in February. June 1566 brought another bloody peasant revolt in Bulgaria, which took three weeks to suppress. Another Ottoman-Persian war broke out in August, shortly before the death of Süleymân; he was succeded by Selîm II on 8 September. The war would last for two years, and would end with Ak Koyunlu taking control of Trabzon from Persia and the Ottomans gaining Syria from the Mameluks.
Venice was at war again in November 1556, when her ally Poland declared war on Lithuania; both sides called upon their allies, and the resulting conflict was between Poland, Venice, Genoa, Naples and Helvetia on one side against Lithuania, Brandenburg, Prussia, Saxony, Bohemia and Scotland on the other. However, most of the combat in this war took place on Polish, Bohemian and Lithuanian territory, with few of the other nations becoming actively involved. Of more interest to the Venetians was a revolt in Spanish Sicily, with the western half of the island declaring independence from Spain in November 1567.
Priuli retired from office on 5 November 1567, and was succeeded by Pietro Loredan. Loredan was presented with a petition to implement protective tariffs to favor Venetian merchants in December, but he was a strong believer in free trade, and vetoed the proposed ordinance. Loredan instead sent more merchants abroad, expanding trade in the fiercely competitive English and Ligurian markets. Riots broke out in Venice in January 1569 between separate bands of Catholic, Orthodox, and Protestant combatants after someone (it was never proven who) set fire to a Protestant chapel; Priuli placed the capital city under martial law for two weeks.
Venice found herself in another Ottoman war unexpectedly; on 7 March 1569, Selîm declared war on Poland, and the Poles called in their allies. But Priuli had kept troops stationed in Bulgaria and Hellas, and they immediately marched on Thrace and Macedonia. Thessaloniki was brought under siege on 29 March; that same day, the Venetian army fought a brief skirmish with a badly outnumbered Ottoman force outside Constantinople, routing it with no casualties on the Venetian side; they commenced a siege the next day. The Ottomans marched reinforcements from Anatolia to attempt to lift the siege, but they were repulsed on 18 April. Meanwhile a Genoese army landed in Albania and began a siege at Durrës.
Constantinople fell to the Venetian army on 30 June. A heroic but utterly foolish attempt by 2000 Ottoman cavalry to recapture the city on 3 July was crushed, with the Ottoman force annihilated. Meanwhile Venice negotiated a separate peace in the Lithuanian war on 7 July, with both sides agreeing to return to the status quo. Thessaloniki fell to the Venetians on 29 August, and the Ottoman fleet was driven from the Aegean on 10 September. Durrës was captured by the Genoese on 14 October. Priuli next ordered an assault on Rumelia, besieging Varna on 16 October; the city fell to the Venetians on 15 February 1570.
Priuli now began planning an invasion of Rhodes. He first sent the Venetian fleet to clear the seas of Ottoman ships; in a series of battles in March and April 1570, the Ottoman navy was destroyed by a combined force of Venetian and Genoese warships. However, Priuli was unable to implement his planned invasion, because he died of heart failure on 6 May 1570; but his successor, Alvise Mocenigo, continued with the assault as planned. Venetian troops from Corfu landed on Rhodes on 14 June and immediately placed the fortress under siege.
In July, there was another peasant uprising in Bulgaria, but the Venetian reserves stationed in the province quickly restored order. Mocenigo sent reinforcements from Dalmatia to Rhodes in September to hurry the progress of the siege. Meanwhile Antonio Frontieri was again causing trouble for Venice, denouncing the war as a front for Catholic expansionism in a series of sermons; Mocenigo imprisoned him for treason in January 1571.
On 8 February, Selîm sent an emissary to the Venetian front with a peace proposal, offering to cede Macedonia and Rumelia to Venice and pay substantial reparations if the Venetians would stand down in Rhodes. Mocenigo agreed to the terms, and the fleet was dispatched to Rhodes to evacuate the Venetian army. The Genoese, however, turned down the peace terms the Ottomans offered them, and invaded the Ottoman province of Dobrudja. (Genoa would ultimately annex both Albania and Dobrudja in 1578.) But for Venice, the victory was nearly complete; all of the Slavonic provinces in the Balkans had been taken from the Ottomans. There was some dissention among Venice’s Greek subjects at the abandonment of Rhodes, but it was agreed by all that the liberation of Rhodes would come in time. The Ottomans were now a spent force, and they would only decline in power in the future.
Despite Laurenti Priuli’s administrative talents, his government experienced a nearly unbroken series of failures. Priuli began making diplomatic overtures to Genoa in late 1556, with an eye towards making Genoa a vassal of Venice. The Genoese, however, were not interested in becoming another Venetian satellite state, wishing to preserve their independence; diplomatic relations between the two Italian states cooled noticeably for the next several years. Venetian trade also suffered during his rule, being driven entirely out of the Delhi markets and suffering from severe competition throughout Europe and the Near East. Priuli’s one notable success was in expanding the Venetian trading post in Senegal in 1557.
In July 1559 Senatorial opposition to Laurenti Priuli’s government began to increase as a result of the failure of his major policy initiatives, and he was forced to resign on 18 August. He was succeeded as Doge by his brother (and longtime political rival) Girolamo Priuli. The new doge immediately went on the offensive in the marketplace, subsidizing aggressive competition by Venetian merchants in every major marketplace.
Priuli also dispatched Venetian troops to Senegal to defend the trading post against the possibility of attack by hostile natives. They arrived just in time to fight off an attack from an unexpected direction. The Venetian presence in Africa was in technical violation of the Treaty of Tordesillas, which reserved the right to colonize Africa to the Portuguese, and Portugal was determined to drive out all interlopers in what was supposedly their territory. The Portuguese attacked the Senegal trading post on 7 November 1560, but were beaten back with heavy losses. However, a second attack by the Portuguese on 30 June 1561 resulted in the trading post being burned to the ground; the Venetian attempt to colonize North Africa was finished.
However, in the Americas, where a bankrupt Spain was unable to enforce her territorial claims under the Treaty of Tordesillas, the Venetians fared better. Priuli sent more colonists to expand the settlements in Bermuda and Penobscot, and also expanded the Sebago trading post. Plans were drawn up to colonize even more of the North American mainland, and troops were sent to Penobscot to help enforce the Venetian claims and defend against the possibility of native attack (or from attack by the English, who were also aggressively colonizing in the same region.)
Priuli also worked to shore up Venice’s domestic economy, passing internal trade ordinances to increase tax revenue. He had to deal with a two-week-long revolt in Emilia in March 1562; a large number of Emilians had converted to Protestantism, and were unhappy with the Venetian government’s lack of tolerance for their dissident religion. However, Venice never experienced the sort of religious conflict that was at this time causing France to dissolve into chaos; the French nation would come close to complete disintegration over the next few years.
December 1562 saw a deadly outbreak of plague on Corfu. Luckily it was confined to the island, and never spread to the mainland; but the population of Corfu suffered from horrendous mortality; nearly 5000 of the island’s 8000 inhabitants died in the plague and the resulting famine.
1563 was a better year for Venice. New trading posts were established in Stadacone and Bas St.-Laurent, and a treaty was signed with the Lenape tribe to permit free passage of Venetians through their lands. This allowed Venice to become the first European nation to have traders attend the Indian trading potlatch on the island of Manhattan; this foothold in the North American market would prove to be quite lucrative. In March 1564 a Venetian fleet successfully drove out a band of pirates who had been harassing the North American coast, and in September Venice founded a new trading post in Gaspésie.
Trouble returned to Venice’s borders in June 1564, when the Dutchy of Milan revolted against Spanish rule. Priuli attempted to open up diplomatic relations with the newly independent state, and offered them a place in the Venetian alliance, but the Milanese refused to have any friendly dealings with their powerful neighbor.
The Venetian colonial empire in North America expanded again in 1566, with a trading post established in Ticonderoga in February. June 1566 brought another bloody peasant revolt in Bulgaria, which took three weeks to suppress. Another Ottoman-Persian war broke out in August, shortly before the death of Süleymân; he was succeded by Selîm II on 8 September. The war would last for two years, and would end with Ak Koyunlu taking control of Trabzon from Persia and the Ottomans gaining Syria from the Mameluks.
Venice was at war again in November 1556, when her ally Poland declared war on Lithuania; both sides called upon their allies, and the resulting conflict was between Poland, Venice, Genoa, Naples and Helvetia on one side against Lithuania, Brandenburg, Prussia, Saxony, Bohemia and Scotland on the other. However, most of the combat in this war took place on Polish, Bohemian and Lithuanian territory, with few of the other nations becoming actively involved. Of more interest to the Venetians was a revolt in Spanish Sicily, with the western half of the island declaring independence from Spain in November 1567.
Priuli retired from office on 5 November 1567, and was succeeded by Pietro Loredan. Loredan was presented with a petition to implement protective tariffs to favor Venetian merchants in December, but he was a strong believer in free trade, and vetoed the proposed ordinance. Loredan instead sent more merchants abroad, expanding trade in the fiercely competitive English and Ligurian markets. Riots broke out in Venice in January 1569 between separate bands of Catholic, Orthodox, and Protestant combatants after someone (it was never proven who) set fire to a Protestant chapel; Priuli placed the capital city under martial law for two weeks.
Venice found herself in another Ottoman war unexpectedly; on 7 March 1569, Selîm declared war on Poland, and the Poles called in their allies. But Priuli had kept troops stationed in Bulgaria and Hellas, and they immediately marched on Thrace and Macedonia. Thessaloniki was brought under siege on 29 March; that same day, the Venetian army fought a brief skirmish with a badly outnumbered Ottoman force outside Constantinople, routing it with no casualties on the Venetian side; they commenced a siege the next day. The Ottomans marched reinforcements from Anatolia to attempt to lift the siege, but they were repulsed on 18 April. Meanwhile a Genoese army landed in Albania and began a siege at Durrës.
Constantinople fell to the Venetian army on 30 June. A heroic but utterly foolish attempt by 2000 Ottoman cavalry to recapture the city on 3 July was crushed, with the Ottoman force annihilated. Meanwhile Venice negotiated a separate peace in the Lithuanian war on 7 July, with both sides agreeing to return to the status quo. Thessaloniki fell to the Venetians on 29 August, and the Ottoman fleet was driven from the Aegean on 10 September. Durrës was captured by the Genoese on 14 October. Priuli next ordered an assault on Rumelia, besieging Varna on 16 October; the city fell to the Venetians on 15 February 1570.
Priuli now began planning an invasion of Rhodes. He first sent the Venetian fleet to clear the seas of Ottoman ships; in a series of battles in March and April 1570, the Ottoman navy was destroyed by a combined force of Venetian and Genoese warships. However, Priuli was unable to implement his planned invasion, because he died of heart failure on 6 May 1570; but his successor, Alvise Mocenigo, continued with the assault as planned. Venetian troops from Corfu landed on Rhodes on 14 June and immediately placed the fortress under siege.
In July, there was another peasant uprising in Bulgaria, but the Venetian reserves stationed in the province quickly restored order. Mocenigo sent reinforcements from Dalmatia to Rhodes in September to hurry the progress of the siege. Meanwhile Antonio Frontieri was again causing trouble for Venice, denouncing the war as a front for Catholic expansionism in a series of sermons; Mocenigo imprisoned him for treason in January 1571.
On 8 February, Selîm sent an emissary to the Venetian front with a peace proposal, offering to cede Macedonia and Rumelia to Venice and pay substantial reparations if the Venetians would stand down in Rhodes. Mocenigo agreed to the terms, and the fleet was dispatched to Rhodes to evacuate the Venetian army. The Genoese, however, turned down the peace terms the Ottomans offered them, and invaded the Ottoman province of Dobrudja. (Genoa would ultimately annex both Albania and Dobrudja in 1578.) But for Venice, the victory was nearly complete; all of the Slavonic provinces in the Balkans had been taken from the Ottomans. There was some dissention among Venice’s Greek subjects at the abandonment of Rhodes, but it was agreed by all that the liberation of Rhodes would come in time. The Ottomans were now a spent force, and they would only decline in power in the future.
Chapter 14: Expansion in Italy and America 1571 – 1587
Mocenigo now turned to consolidating Venice’s new territorial gains, and to further expansion of trade. The newly independent Netherlands was undergoing a dramatic economic expansion, and Venice became an early player in the Dutch marketplace. The American colonies also expanded in 1571, with a new trading post in Shawnigan and an expansion of the settlement in Penobscot.
The new year brought a revolt in Rumelia; the rebels gained control of the fortress in Varna, and a ten-month siege was needed to recapture it. Meanwhile new trading posts were established in Adirondack and Massachusetts; the latter had been English territory, but the English trading post was destroyed by the Lenape in 1571 and Venice quickly moved to fill the void. Meanwhile, in the east, the Ottomans and Persians once again went to war; and in the west, France was disintegrating in a number of religiously motivated wars and rebellions, splintering into half a dozen warring states.
In June 1573, the Mocenigo government was shaken by a corruption scandal, but Mocenigo moved quickly to eradicate the problem. The Penobscot colony expanded again, with a new wave of settlers arriving in July. The First Lithuanian War finally came to a belated end when Poland and Lithuania made peace in August. And the nation of Ak Koyunlu ceased to exist in November, when it was conquered and annexed by Persia. The growing Persian threat led Mocenigo to begin expanding fortresses throughout the eastern provinces.
1574 was relatively peaceful, apart from a short-lived peasant revolt in Rumelia; the Venetian fleet began its first tentative reconnaissance of the southern African coast this year. The latest Ottoman-Persian war came to an end in February 1575, and the Venetian trading post in Sebago was expanded that same month. Also in February, Protestant evangelists in Morea succeeded in converting a large percentage of the population; Mocenigo sent troops to patrol the province in case of religiously motivated strife, but none occurred. The colony in Penobscot was growing rapidly, with three new waves of settlers arriving in 1575 and 1576; in April 1576, Mocenigo granted Nova Trento a charter as Venice’s first North American city.
But Mocenigo’s health was failing, and on 5 June 1577 he stepped down and was succeeded by Sebastiano Venier. Venier served as Doge for less than a year, and he accomplished little of note beyond constructing new fortifications in Rumelia. He died in an accident (he fell down a staircase while drunk) on 3 March 1578. His successor, Niccoló da Ponte, commissioned an expedition to survey a sea route to India via a Northwest Passage as his first act in office. He also sent more colonists to North America, expanding the trading post in Sebago and establishing the new colonial town of San Paulo in Gaspésie in 1579; in 1580, he expanded the trading posts in Megantic and Laurentia.
Da Ponte enacted reforms to further centralize the Venetian government; this brought him into conflict with the Venetian nobility, and in February 1580 he was forced to buy them off with increased pensions in exchange for the reduction of their historic rights. Meanwhile, the Northwest Passage expedition surveyed the Labrador coast in the summer of 1580, and sailed into Hudson Bay on 21 June 1581. In July 1581 the Venetians established a trading post in Wabana on the island of Newfoundland, and in August established another at Nain on the Labrador coast. But it was clear by this point that there was no Northwest Passage for the Venetian expedition to discover, so they turned their ships south to attempt a passage around South America.
In 1582, da Ponte was forced to deal with the growing religious turmoil in the Republic. To date, Venice had avoided the worst of the religious strife that had accompanied the Protestant Reformation, but in September 1582 the Catholic clergy of Venice brought da Ponte a petition to enact a law outlawing Protestantism. Da Ponte rejected their demands, and instead put legislation before the Senate enacting official tolerance for all Christian and Jewish forms of worship (pointedly excluding Islam – there were limits to Venetian tolerance, after all.) This led to some short-term tension between the government and the Church, but in the long run spared Venice the religious strife that consumed northern Europe during the 17th century.
Meanwhile, to the east, the latest Ottoman-Persian war was ending very badly for the Ottoman Empire. In August 1583, Murad III was forced to cede Syria, Angora, Namaqua and Damara to Persia. Most of the remaining Ottoman provinces were in rebellion by the end of the year. Da Ponte moved more troops to the eastern border, in case the unrest in the Empire spilled over into Venetian territory.
In 1584 da Ponte began a significant reform of the Venetian government. The Senate enacted legislation allowing the Doge to appoint a provincial governor for each province of the Republic, and the first governors were appointed in July 1584 (though it took several years to fill the position in every province.) This gave da Ponte more control over the local enforcement of ordinances, hastening the economic advancement of the Republic.
Da Ponte stepped down on 30 July 1585, and the Senate appointed Pasquale Cicogna to replace him. Cicogna was a talented administrator, though a notoriously poor diplomat. He chartered a new Venetian colony on the island of St. Martin in the Caribbean in December 1585. In December 1586, a feud between noble houses in Mantua erupted into full-scale war between them; Cicogna was forced to send in the Venetian army to restore order. (This would be but a footnote in the history of Venice, except that it provided an English playwright named Shakespeare with the material for one of his most famous dramas, Romeo and Juliet.)
And in 1587, in spite of his reputation as an indifferent diplomat, Cicogna scored a major coup: the Kingdom of Naples was incorporated into the Venetian Republic. Venice was now close to unifying the entire Italian peninsula. This sparked a new consciousness in the Venetian public imagination; Venetians began to speak openly of Venice as a new Rome, and of the Republic’s destiny to rule the whole of the Italian and Greek peoples. (If Venice’s Slavonic citizens felt left out by this, they sensibly kept quiet about it, since the only non-Venetian Slovenes were under Austrian rule, and Venice had no wish for a conflict with Austria at this time.) Cicogna himself spoke of liberating all Christians under Moslem rule, and of restoring Christian rule to the Holy Land. Venice was in the process of inventing an imperial destiny for herself, which would come to rule Venetian policy in the next century.
Mocenigo now turned to consolidating Venice’s new territorial gains, and to further expansion of trade. The newly independent Netherlands was undergoing a dramatic economic expansion, and Venice became an early player in the Dutch marketplace. The American colonies also expanded in 1571, with a new trading post in Shawnigan and an expansion of the settlement in Penobscot.
The new year brought a revolt in Rumelia; the rebels gained control of the fortress in Varna, and a ten-month siege was needed to recapture it. Meanwhile new trading posts were established in Adirondack and Massachusetts; the latter had been English territory, but the English trading post was destroyed by the Lenape in 1571 and Venice quickly moved to fill the void. Meanwhile, in the east, the Ottomans and Persians once again went to war; and in the west, France was disintegrating in a number of religiously motivated wars and rebellions, splintering into half a dozen warring states.
In June 1573, the Mocenigo government was shaken by a corruption scandal, but Mocenigo moved quickly to eradicate the problem. The Penobscot colony expanded again, with a new wave of settlers arriving in July. The First Lithuanian War finally came to a belated end when Poland and Lithuania made peace in August. And the nation of Ak Koyunlu ceased to exist in November, when it was conquered and annexed by Persia. The growing Persian threat led Mocenigo to begin expanding fortresses throughout the eastern provinces.
1574 was relatively peaceful, apart from a short-lived peasant revolt in Rumelia; the Venetian fleet began its first tentative reconnaissance of the southern African coast this year. The latest Ottoman-Persian war came to an end in February 1575, and the Venetian trading post in Sebago was expanded that same month. Also in February, Protestant evangelists in Morea succeeded in converting a large percentage of the population; Mocenigo sent troops to patrol the province in case of religiously motivated strife, but none occurred. The colony in Penobscot was growing rapidly, with three new waves of settlers arriving in 1575 and 1576; in April 1576, Mocenigo granted Nova Trento a charter as Venice’s first North American city.
But Mocenigo’s health was failing, and on 5 June 1577 he stepped down and was succeeded by Sebastiano Venier. Venier served as Doge for less than a year, and he accomplished little of note beyond constructing new fortifications in Rumelia. He died in an accident (he fell down a staircase while drunk) on 3 March 1578. His successor, Niccoló da Ponte, commissioned an expedition to survey a sea route to India via a Northwest Passage as his first act in office. He also sent more colonists to North America, expanding the trading post in Sebago and establishing the new colonial town of San Paulo in Gaspésie in 1579; in 1580, he expanded the trading posts in Megantic and Laurentia.
Da Ponte enacted reforms to further centralize the Venetian government; this brought him into conflict with the Venetian nobility, and in February 1580 he was forced to buy them off with increased pensions in exchange for the reduction of their historic rights. Meanwhile, the Northwest Passage expedition surveyed the Labrador coast in the summer of 1580, and sailed into Hudson Bay on 21 June 1581. In July 1581 the Venetians established a trading post in Wabana on the island of Newfoundland, and in August established another at Nain on the Labrador coast. But it was clear by this point that there was no Northwest Passage for the Venetian expedition to discover, so they turned their ships south to attempt a passage around South America.
In 1582, da Ponte was forced to deal with the growing religious turmoil in the Republic. To date, Venice had avoided the worst of the religious strife that had accompanied the Protestant Reformation, but in September 1582 the Catholic clergy of Venice brought da Ponte a petition to enact a law outlawing Protestantism. Da Ponte rejected their demands, and instead put legislation before the Senate enacting official tolerance for all Christian and Jewish forms of worship (pointedly excluding Islam – there were limits to Venetian tolerance, after all.) This led to some short-term tension between the government and the Church, but in the long run spared Venice the religious strife that consumed northern Europe during the 17th century.
Meanwhile, to the east, the latest Ottoman-Persian war was ending very badly for the Ottoman Empire. In August 1583, Murad III was forced to cede Syria, Angora, Namaqua and Damara to Persia. Most of the remaining Ottoman provinces were in rebellion by the end of the year. Da Ponte moved more troops to the eastern border, in case the unrest in the Empire spilled over into Venetian territory.
In 1584 da Ponte began a significant reform of the Venetian government. The Senate enacted legislation allowing the Doge to appoint a provincial governor for each province of the Republic, and the first governors were appointed in July 1584 (though it took several years to fill the position in every province.) This gave da Ponte more control over the local enforcement of ordinances, hastening the economic advancement of the Republic.
Da Ponte stepped down on 30 July 1585, and the Senate appointed Pasquale Cicogna to replace him. Cicogna was a talented administrator, though a notoriously poor diplomat. He chartered a new Venetian colony on the island of St. Martin in the Caribbean in December 1585. In December 1586, a feud between noble houses in Mantua erupted into full-scale war between them; Cicogna was forced to send in the Venetian army to restore order. (This would be but a footnote in the history of Venice, except that it provided an English playwright named Shakespeare with the material for one of his most famous dramas, Romeo and Juliet.)
And in 1587, in spite of his reputation as an indifferent diplomat, Cicogna scored a major coup: the Kingdom of Naples was incorporated into the Venetian Republic. Venice was now close to unifying the entire Italian peninsula. This sparked a new consciousness in the Venetian public imagination; Venetians began to speak openly of Venice as a new Rome, and of the Republic’s destiny to rule the whole of the Italian and Greek peoples. (If Venice’s Slavonic citizens felt left out by this, they sensibly kept quiet about it, since the only non-Venetian Slovenes were under Austrian rule, and Venice had no wish for a conflict with Austria at this time.) Cicogna himself spoke of liberating all Christians under Moslem rule, and of restoring Christian rule to the Holy Land. Venice was in the process of inventing an imperial destiny for herself, which would come to rule Venetian policy in the next century.
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Excellently done, I really like how you are putting everything into persuing your goals.