Part 2: The Schleswig-Holstein War
Following the Napoleonic Wars, Prussia’s economic and military power had increased exponentially. Indeed, by 1836, Prussia’s leading position in Germany was cemented by the successful Zollverein customs agreement (from which Austria was excluded) and its power across Europe was steadily rising. With the help of the German customs agreement and support from the King, Prussia saw the creation of a wealthy bourgeoisie, most of whom were wealthy investors and factory owners that were spearheading Prussia’s industrialization. The Customs Union created a larger market for German-made farm and handicraft products and promoted commercial unification under fiscally sound economic parameters. While the Union sought to limit trade and commercial barriers between and among member states, it continued to uphold the protectionist barriers with outsiders. This greatly served to strengthen Prussia’s position in Germany. Indeed, not only did it strengthen the Prussian economy, it also could be used as a political tool to eliminate Austrian influence in Germany and to strengthen the German nations against potential French aggression while also reducing the economic independence of smaller states. Prussia’s objective of further increase its influence in the northern German states lead it to sign a joint alliance with most of North German states.
Furthermore, the King sought to secure influence in the Netherlands. Indeed, closer ties with the Dutch would not only give Prussia a valuable alliance with a naval power, but also give it access to the vast market of the Dutch colonies, furthering its economic growth. However, they were busy fighting the Belgians in an attempt to regain the territory lost during the Belgian Revolution in 1830. In 1839, a conference was called in London to finally settle the Belgian question. Great Britain proposed that all European powers recognize Belgium’s sovereignty, guarantee its borders as well as its perpetual neutrality. While the great powers all agreed to recognize Belgium’s sovereignty, Prussia refused, along with the Netherlands, to guarantee Belgium’s borders or its neutrality as the Prussians felt that Belgium could make a useful ally against France in the event of war. Furthermore, the move would increase German influence with the Dutch by strengthening ties between the two countries. While the British and the French were severely displeased with Prussia’s stance, Austria sided with Prussia, stating that the Belgians could never truly be neutral and therefore they should not be guaranteed the protection of the Great Powers. Unable to agree, the Prussian, Austrian and Dutch delegations ultimately left London, refusing to sign the treaty. Fighting between the Dutch and Belgians continued for another 9 months, until a new treaty was signed in Amsterdam on January 23rd 1840. In this new treaty, Belgian sovereignty was finally recognized by the Great Powers. However, many of Britain’s desired clauses were dropped, and as such only Great Britain and France agreed to guarantee Belgian neutrality (Russia having decided that without all the Powers guaranteeing Belgium, there was no use in doing so). While relations between Britain and Prussia were strained by Prussia’s (perceived) lack of cooperation, relations would eventually thaw out a few years later.
In 1841, Austria declared war on Russia after a border incident claimed the life of an Austrian soldier. Russia, then unprepared for war with Austria, started mobilizing their troops. The Austrians seeking to delay Russia mobilization as much as possible attacked the two forming armies, inflicting severe defeats at Rivne and Zhitomir. With two armies crushed, the Russian Empire was forced to scramble in order to oppose the Austrian army.
Russian cavalry charging Austrian lines at the battle of Zhitomir
Finally, in 1842, after suffering another defeat at Kiev and the destruction of the better part of their army in the Ukraine, the Russians sued for peace. The Treaty of Kiev was signed in August of 1842 and ceded the state of Rovne to Austria. While Prussia supported the Russian Empire throughout the war (they even sent a brigade of Prussian volunteers), they could ill afford a conflict with Austria. Nevertheless, the war put a severe strain on Austro-Prussian relations, and the minor states of the German Confederation had already started to choose sides. A year later, the Danish government introduced a joint constitution for Denmark and Schleswig, a member of the German Confederation. This caused massive uprisings in Schleswig and Holstein (who feared they who be next), with the rebels openly seeking independence from Denmark. Seizing the opportunity to increase its influence in northern Germany, Prussia decided to warn the Danes that any attempt to put down the rebellions would be met by Prussian resistance. When Danish troops crossed into Schleswig to put down the rebellion, the King declared war on Denmark. 45 000 Prussian troops marched toward Schleswig and met the Danish army at Neuberend on September 13th 1843. The battle lasted for three days with the Prussians finally forcing the Danes to retreat on September 16th 1843, at the price of 960 lives and another 1 450 wounded. This victory by Prussia would prove to be decisive, as the Danish army never recovered from its defeat. The Prussians pushed on to Flensburg, taking the city on the 26th. Following the fall of Esbjerg and Kolding over the month October and several small battles from which the Prussian Army emerged victorious, the Danes were forced to sue for peace. The Treaty of Copenhagen was signed on November 9th 1843, forcing Denmark to renounce its claims to Schleswig-Holstein, with Holstein being freed of Danish influence (only to fall under the sphere of Prussia) and Schleswig being annexed outright.
While the Great Powers remained neutral in the conflict, the humiliation of Denmark by Prussia was condemned by all of them. Austria in particular was displeased by Prussia’s show of power in the region, fearing for its own position in Central Europe, further exacerbating the tensions between the two countries. However, Austria dared not risk war, fearing that Russia would seize the opportunity to seek revenge for the defeat suffered in 1842. Meanwhile, in the Netherlands, a revolution was brewing, one that would have dire consequences on all of Europe.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
There you go, hope you liked it ! The next one will be up by Sunday