Land of the Silver Birch - A Canadian AAR

[vyshan]

Chapter 7: Developing the Frontier

While the 1860s were focused on giving birth to Canada, the 1870s began the process of actually developing Canada from Colonies into a nation. As part of this came the desire to settle and civilize the western prairies. Scandals, Metis, Rail, and politics were all part of the 1870s were all part of the growing pains of the young country.

The Canadian Pacific Railway and Scandal
With the acquisitions Prince Rupert Land, Prime Minister’s overriding goal was the development of the country. MacDonald saw it as a way to help unite and create a unifying Canadian identity out of the various colonies. Meanwhile in Quebec and Ontario there was a desire by the emerging industrial class for raw materials and new markets.

To this end, the government focused on building a railway to link up all parts of the country. Thus a plan was developed that would connect the city of Seattle to Toronto and Montreal. The plan that was settled on would go across the new lands of Prince Rupert Territory and link up to Columbia. This also meant crossing the Rocky Mountains a difficult feat.

However there was an issue, that plan that the government settled on was not the fastest route nor the cheapest. That would have been going from Chicago in the United States to Seattle and from Chicago to Ontario and Quebec. However, MacDonald refused this believing it of utmost imperative that the railway be built through Canada.

To that end, MacDonald gave numerous bribes and grants to the Canadian Pacific Company in order to make sure that the railway would be built through Canadian territory. This would lead to the Pacific Scandal in 1873 where over 150 conservative members of Parliament. In particular Prime Minister MacDonald was accused of being bribed by the magnet Sir Hugh Allan in connection to the railway.

Famously he would declare that “These Hands are Clean!” in response to the accusations against him. However, he was concerned about a vote of no confidence so he would ask the Governor General to dissolve parliament. MacDonald would later offer his resignation to which his own party refused him so he was convinced to stay on. However, this would cause him to lose favor with the public and in 1874 the Liberal leader Alexander Mackenzie was able to secure a firm majority, thus he was able to become Canada’s second Prime Minister.

[political cartoons during the Pacific Scandal]

Alexander’s Premiership

[Alexander Mackenzie, Canada's second Prime Minister]

With Alexander Mackenzie becoming the second Prime Minister, he would embark on a number of projects to improve the quality of Democracy in Canada. In 1874 he would pass the Royal Election Act, which created laws for the secret ballot and abolished property-ownership requirements to run for the house of Commons.

It was under his leadership that the Supreme Court of Canada that was established. It was not however the court of last appeals, since the Kingdom of Canada was a dominion under the United Kingdom it meant that the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council was the court of last appeals.

Due in part to the Pacific Scandal that brought him to power, he would be instrumental in creating the Auditor General of Canada in 1878. It also lead to one of Canada’s first Crown Corporations as he would bring the railway under the auspice of the Intercolonial Railway of Canada which was owned by the Federal government of Canada.

So committed to democracy and his working class roots he refused knighthood three times. He would also decline appointment to the Privy Council of the United Kingdom and thus was not given the title of ‘Right Honourable’. Famously while touring Fort Henry as Prime Minister, he asked the soldier who was accompanying him if he knew the thickness of the wall of the fort. The soldier would to his embarrassment confess that he did not; to which Mackenzie would respond, “I do. It is five feet, ten inches. I know, because I built it myself!”

Yet despite all these reforms, Alexander Mackenzie was a one term Prime Minister. In 1878 he would lose the election to John MacDonald who was able to come back to popularity for his support of the National Policy that was designed to counter the economic downturn that was brought about due to the panic of 1878.

Settling the Frontier and the Metis

[The shifting cultural map of western Canada]

While the politicians were arguing about the nature of the railway, many immigrants were migrating westward. The government was interested in civilizing and settling the prairies. While the project to build a railway was to help unite the country. It also was about helping to encourage immigration to the western prairies.

One of the regions that became open to settling would be Alaska. The Alaskan Territory would be settled principally by French-Canadians. While at the time this was not considered a big deal as it was part of the whole civilizing the frontier that was going on at the time, the settlement of Alaska by French-Canadians would have dramatic effects for Canada. For the most part French-Canadian Culture was limited to Quebec, however this would lead to French Culture being spread out throughout Canada. Though in the 1870s the impact of Alaska being French had not yet had that cultural impact but it would down the road.

While Alaska was being settled by the French, the western territories were being settled by those of British Heritage. Either anglo-Canadians or more recent immigrants from Britain. Of course their migration ignored the fact that the land was already owned by numerous people who were already living there. In particularly this would lead to conflict between the Metis, one of the first people who trace their heritage to both native Canadians and early European settlers.

As the migration headed westward and the Canadian government looked to settle and civilize the land, the Metis were concerned that their way of life would be destroyed. The Hudson Bay Company largely left them alone, and even when they did interact it tended towards mutual benefits due to the fur trade that was of interest to both parties. However, the new Canadian government was an unknown to the Metis.

Thus entered Louis David Riel who was the de-facto leader of the Metis and their principal representative in dealing with the Canadian Government. Louis David Riel was a charismatic leader and known for being a devoted catholic that would border on fanatic. The Canadians for their part sent several diplomats to meet with the Metis and Riel, including members of HBC.

The negotiations between the Canadians and the Metis were famously tense and difficult. However in the end, a settlement was found. The Manitoba Act of 1870 was designed with the hopes of reaching a peaceful settlement between Canada and the Metis. While not every demand that the Metis had was granted, many of them were placed in the act. Of course the concern the Metis had would the Canadians abide by this treaty? After all the policy of settler colonialism was at odds with the ideals in the Act.

 

[Specialist290]

Ah, transcontinental railroads and their attendant railroad scandals -- it seems that not even our northern neighbors are fully immune

Incidentally, what's the key to the cultural map above? I can take a crack at a few of them (pale blue: Franco-Canadian, pink: Anglo-Canadian, red: British) based on context, but it would be nice to have it laid out in full.

 

[stnylan]

Political scandals are so delightfully regular.

I entirely agree - such putting things in an Act hardly ensures the Act will be followed.

 

[Arnulf Floyd]

Another good and interesting chapter

 

[vyshan]

Specialist290: Here you go, hopefully this explains it better.

• Red: English
• Pink: Anglo-Canadian
  
• Light Blue: Franco-Canadian
  
• Blue: Metis
  
• Light Green: Cree
  
• White: Inuit
  
• Purple: Native American Minor
  
• Blue-Purple: Yankee

So lots of various native tribes in the West. and Yes, the French Canadians have replaced the Inuits. So many french have moved to Alaska

Stnylan: We shall find out about the future of the Act in future episodes
Arnulf Floyd: Thanks. Glad that you are enjoying it.

 

[vyshan]

Chapter 8: The Development of Industry

The Panic of 1873 would set of a depression in Canada and from this Canada would be reforged. MacDonald would begin the national Policy of High Tariffs to protect Canadian Goods, the parliament would help improve and modernize banking in the kingdom while workers would take to the streets and look to form a national union.

The National Policy
The panic of 1873 was a major part of the backdrop of the 1878 election. While Alexander Mackenzie had achieved much for Canadian democracy, he was unable to help protect the economy and as the global economic recession came to Canada, it would help propel John A. MacDonald back into the spotlight.

The principal reason for this was his National Policy. The National Policy was initially a series of high tariffs designed to protect and promote Canadian Industry. Equally important to the National Policy was the reduced custom duties on imported raw materials and semi-processed products. All of which helped to grow Canada’s economy during these years.

MacDonald wanted to restore confidence in the development of the Kingdom following the global recession. Moreover, the Policy also helped to assist a number of wealthy businessmen in Canada, who MacDonald in turn would count on to contribute rather generously to the Conservative Party.

As time went on, the National Policy became associated with the whole of the Conservative Economic Policy. This includes their focus on western settlement and development, Harbor development and subsidization of steamship service to Europe and Asia to facilitate the export of Canadian Products.

The National Policy would be extremely popular, particularly in the east. Even when running against the Conservatives, the Liberal Party did not seek to turn entirely against the National Policy but instead promised to tweak it.

The Banking Acts
Following Confederation one of the major acts was to establish a united currency for the Kingdom. Before Confederation, every colony had their own Currency and then there were the various monetary systems used in Prince Rupert land. MacDonald sought to change that he did so by establishing the Canadian Pound based on the British system. That said, as part of the various acts to unify the country, the Kingdom of Canada would be the first in the British Empire to use a decimal based system even if its value was tied to that of both the Gold Standard and the British Pound Sterling

The panic of 1873 would also force the government of Canada to work on modernizing the Canadian banking system in order to prevent another Panic. This would lead to several acts in the 1870s and 1880s to centralize the various banking institutions. This laid the groundwork for five companies to emerge as the dominate banks of Canada, that would be known as the Big Five.

It should also be noted that the various banking acts to modernize the Kingdom, was part of an empire wide program of modernizing the banking institutions of the empire. Following the panic of 1873, the British themselves began to look at strengthening their institutions as well as to help standardize it throughout the empire.

As part of the whole modernization, the calls began to emerge for the establishment of a Royal Mint. However at the time the British government denied it. That would be too much change too quickly, and with the economic recovery process being instituted both in Canada and abroad, the British government decided to wait. However, this did lead to growing support for a mint.

Modern Factories and Infrastructure
A key part of the National Policy was supporting industrialization throughout the Kingdom, to that end there was a focus on supporting capitalists throughout the various provinces. From the Maritimes to Columbia a number of new industrialists took advantage of the opportunities to emerge.

Part of the development of industry and industrialization was partially inspired by the drive to build the transcontinental railroad across Canada. Much of the factories that popped up in the 1870s and 1880s were built around the steel industry. While most of the early industries were based around more basic goods such as steel, glass, or textiles, others started to emerge such as luxury clothing and furnishing for the elite of the empire.

As the country was modernizing, a number of new bridges were being built across the St. Lawrence River for trains to cross. In order to help build them a number of workers from the Mohawk tribe, part of the Iroquois confederacy, would be hired. The various business leaders found that they had a far more productive talent then just simple day labors, as they seemed to have no fear of heights or at least did not show any. This would start a new tradition for not just the Mohawk but the Iroquois as a whole, that of being steelworkers. This was a tradition that the Canadian government was happy to promote, particularly as a contrast to the conflicts raging with the Metis.

The Development of Trade Unions
The 1870s and 1880s would also see the beginnings of unions in Canada. Unions had existed in Canada since 1816 when the Nova Scotia government prohibited workers for union activity and would fine or jail them in return. This did not stop the growth of Unions and despite the fact that strikes could turn bloody, unions did grow in a number of the cities throughout Canada during the 1840s and 1850s.

However it is in 1872 when Unions won their first battle and would start to organize nationally for the first time. It started when the Toronto Typographical Union demanded a nine-hour workday from the city’s publishers. They however refused to give into the workers demand. So the workers would walk off the job on strike. Toronto Globe publisher, George Brown would have the strike committee arrested for criminal conspiracy, as unions were illegal during this time. However over 10,000 supporters would rally in solidarity at Queen’s Park on April 15th. More solidarity rallies would gather in other Canadian cities in support of the union.

The turning point was when the Prime Minister, John A. MacDonald got involved. For MacDonald had a rivalry with George Brown, who in addition to being the publisher of the Toronto Globe was a leader within the Liberal Party. As such he decided to introduce and get pass the Trade Union Act, which lead to the legalization of Unions. This victory would not only lead to many other unions seeking better working hours but also the establishment of Labor day in Canada at the end of the summer in order to celebrate this victory. Though it would not be till the 1890s that the Canadian government would officially recognize Labour Day as a holiday.

Moreover this victory would lead to the beginnings of a national Union confederation in Canada. The first attempt began after the victory in 1872 with the establishment of the Canadian Labour Union. While not a true national union as only Ontario Unions were members, it was the first attempt and laid the groundwork for future unions. However the Panic of 1873 that caused a global depression lead to the downfall of this Union organization.

Starting in 1883 though, a number of unions sought to pick up the pieces that the Canadian Labour Union left off and began to establish what would be called the Trades and Labour Congress of Canada. While at first it was just Unions in Ontario it would begin to expand to include unions in other provinces and by 1890 their would branches from Seattle to Halifax.

 

[stnylan]

One feels that MacDonald, or his political heirs, might have cause to regret his manoeuvring here, but for the Unions matters turned out rather well.

 

[vyshan]

Stnylan: Yup the Unions benefited from MacDonald's rivalry with Brown

 

[vyshan]

Chapter 9: The North-Western Rebellion

While industrialization was going on throughout Canada particularly in the cities and along the coast; Rebellion would rage across the Prairies. A conflict that was born of greed and avarice but also miscommunication. While the Rebellion itself was relatively short around five to six months, it would have considerable impact on what would become the Prairie Provinces and the Kingdom as a whole.

Lead up to the rebellion

[photo of Riel and the leaders of the Provisional government]

By the late 1870s, the various indigenous tribes in the Prairies, such as the Cree, Blackfoot, Peigan, and Saulteaux, were experiencing disaster. For years they had survived off the Bison that traveled the plains and prairies; however, now, the Bison had disappeared. Adding to this they had signed away much of their land in various treaties. Once where there was the wild and expansive prairie, now there were towns, farming homesteads, and railways. For most Canadians, be they French or Anglo, in government or in the factory, this was largely considered a good thing. A sign of how Canada was taming and civilizing the savage west. However this view was not shared by the Aboriginal people, and thus to that end a native confederacy was formed thanks to Big Bear, chief of the Cree, and Crowfoot, chief of the Blackfoot, in 1880.

The Metis people meanwhile had their own grievances and concerns. The Manitoba treaty that was passed in 1870 lead to many within the Metis community rejoicing that it would preserve their way of life. However by 1880 their way of life was disappearing, the fur trade was in great decline and like the various indigenous tribes, they were suffering from the loss of the Bison. They were waiting and hoping from Ottawa that the treaty would be respected but as 1870 became 1880 it was becoming clear that the government had little desire to follow the act.

In the summer of 1884, this discontent would start to boil over as Louis Riel urged all dissatisfied people in the North-west to unite and push their concerns to the government, which so far had been ignoring them. In the fall of 1884, Riel prepared a petition and urged Métis and non-Métis settlers alike to sign it. On 8 March 1885 the Métis passed a 10-point "Revolutionary Bill of Rights" asserting Métis rights of possession to their farms, and made other demands, including: "That the Land Department of the Royal Government be administered as far as practicable from Winnipeg, so that the settlers may not be compelled as heretofore to go to Ottawa for the settlement of questions in dispute between them and the land commissioner."

On 18 and 19 March, an armed force of Métis formed a provisional government, seized the parish church at Batoche, and demanded the surrender of the nearby Hudson's Bay Company post at Fort Carlton. Riel was named president of the rebel government, and famed Métis hunter and tactician Gabriel Dumont was installed as military commander.

It should be noted that the Provisional government had a strong religious component to it. As Louis Riel had come to believe that he was chosen by God to be the divine leader of the Metis. Thus, Louis Riel would form the Exovedate in March of 1885 to be the Legislature chamber of the Provisional government. This was a term that Riel himself made up deriving from the Latin Ex and Ovis. The Exovedate composed of twenty men most were metis though it included a few non-metis in it as well.

The Rebellion begins

The Metis knew that there would be some sort of police intervention and thus they occupied the community of Duck Lake, which is about halfway between Batoche and Fort Carlton. They were met by a force of about 100 North-West Mounted Police and armed citizen Volunteers under the command of Superintendent Lief Crozier.

A large group of Métis and Aboriginal rebels met them on the Carlton Trail outside the village. Negotiations ended in confusion and the police and volunteers fired at their enemy hidden in a hollow north of the road, and in a cabin to the south. The battle ended shortly after, with the police and volunteers retreating to Fort Carlton. Nine volunteers and three police members were killed, with many more injured. Five Métis and one Aboriginal warrior died. Riel persuaded the rebel soldiers not to pursue the retreating force, and the Métis returned to Batoche. The police evacuated Fort Carlton and retired to Prince Albert.

The Metis victory at Duck Lake would encourage a large contingent of the Cree to move on Battleford from various aboriginal reserves to the west. The settlers who had come to the region would flee to the safety of Fort Battleford. More started to come as news came that there were clashes between the settlers and the Natives.

Chief Big Bear of the Cree was one of the last plains chiefs to sign a treaty with Ottawa, he was resisting moving his people onto a reserve, holding out for a better deal. Because of this his band included some of the more militant Cree. By the spring of 1885, The government in Ottawa took a hard-line with Big Bear’s band and cut off rations to try and force them to settle. This action guaranteed that violence would clash between Big Bear and the Canadian government.

Canada goes to war

The reaction to the events out west in Ottawa was swift and clear. Due to the fact that the only real threat to the Kingdom would come from the United States and that Washington and Ottawa were on good terms, the Royal Canadian Army was kept to a small size. However various militia were called to arms once news reached Ottawa of the the rebellion. William Van Horne manager of the Canadian Pacific Railroad, quickly agreed and arranged for Canadian troops to be transported across the various unfinished gaps in the railway to reach the west quicker. The task of defeating the rebellion would fall to Major-General Frederick Middleton who would command a force of just over 5,000 troops which included men from Quebec, Ontario, Nova Scotia, and even Columbia.

Middleton’s Original plan was simple, march all of his troops north from the railhead at Qu’Appelle to Batoche. However the killings at Frog Lake and the siege of Battleford forced him to send Lieutenant Colonel William Otter North with a large contingent to relieve Battleford. Moreover, there was pressure from Alberta which would lead to the creation of a third column in Calgary lead by Thomas Bland Strange.

Middleton set off on the 50 km march to Batoche from Clarke's Crossing on the South Saskatchewan River on 23 April. About 900 men, including two artillery batteries, were split into two groups, one for each side of the river. The Metis were divided as to the course of the battle, Riel wanted to concentrate all efforts on defending Batoche, while Dumont wanted a more forward position. Dumont would win that debate and on the 12th of April, they prepared an ambush at Tourond’s Coulee, also known as Fish Creek, which is about 20 km south of Batoche on the east side of the South Saskatchewan River.

As Middleton's scouts approached the coulee early on 24 April, the rebels opened fire. Until mid-afternoon, Middleton's soldiers tried unsuccessfully to drive Dumont's men from the ravine and suffered heavy casualties, with six killed and 49 wounded. The rebels had only four killed. It took most of the day for Middleton to get the troops from the west bank across the river on a makeshift ferry and they arrived too late to take part in the fighting. Middleton though was distressed by the casualties his side was taking,inspite some of that coming from his own recklessness, he would opt for a retreat to consolidate his forces and regroup. Thus the Metis held their ground and stopped the Government’s advance.

Meanwhile while that Battle of Fish Creek was occurring, Otter’s North force arrived at Fort Battleford to the rejoicing of the townsfolk and the various settlers that had sought refuge there.The people of the Fort, both settlers and townspeople, wanted to revenge on the indigenous tribes for their losses, while many of Otter’s troops were upset that they had missed out on a fight. Thus pressured by both the townspeople and his own troops Colonel North decided to take action. Despite orders from Middleton to stay in Battleford, he wired Edgar Dewdney, who was both Lieutenant-governor of the Northwest Territories and the Indian Commissioner, for permission to punish the Cree Chief Poundmaker, Edgar quickly gave permission to do so.

With permission granted, he would set out on the first of may, with two 7 pounder field rifles and even a Gatling gun to attack the Cree and Assiniboine at Cut Knife Hill. His plan was to march until dusk, and rest till the moon rose and attack the Cree and Assiniboine in the morning while they were sleeping. It was not till just after dawn on the second of May that Otter’s column arrived. However, he expected that the camp would be in the prairie on the east side of Cut Knife Creek and did not anticipate that he would have to ford the creek. After crossing the creek, they then had to wade through a marsh to reach the encampment. This however alerted a cree scout by the name of Jacob alerted the camp to Otter’s advancement.

Colonel Otter set up his two cannons and Gatling gun and started to fire upon the Cree camp which caused total confusion for the first few minutes. The gunfire destroyed the camp sending women and children running for the safety of the ravines. The Cree chief Fine day went to the top Cut Knife Hill to direct the Cree counter attack, while most of the Cree and Assiniboine went to the various ravines. The warriors would fight in small groups doing hit and run tactics, with one group attacking and then retreating into the ravine, when the government troops went to attack them, another band would strike from a different ravine while the first went to protect the women and children. Otter would from his force into wedge, with two lines of soldiers faced the two ravines, while the militia and volunteers would face the marsh. As the battle continued Fine Day employed a flanking maneuver, where his men moved along the two ravines getting closer and closer to the soldiers while staying behind trees and bushes as they shot to avoid being spotted by Otter’s forces. After six hours of fighting Otter decided to withdraw his forces back to Battleford. The cree forces were going to press the attack however Poundmaker would convince them to allow Otter’s men to leave, Poundmaker’s decision likely saved Otter and his troops from being totally wiped out by the Cree.

The Fall of the Provisional Government

After the various setbacks that the government forces suffered, Middleton approached Batoche with caution. He wanted to avoid another setback. Middleton's plan rested on an encirclement strategy: as his main contingent advanced directly against Métis defensive lines, the steamboat Northcote, carrying some of Middleton's troops, would steam past the distracted defenders and unload fifty men at the rear of the town, effectively closing the pincer.

News of Otter’s setback caused Middleton to wait two weeks for reinforcements before resuming his march to Batoche. On the morning of 9 May, his forces attacked the carefully constructed defences at the southern end of the Batoche settlement. The steamer Northcote, transformed into a gunboat, attempted to attack the village from the river, but the Métis lowered the ferry cable, incapacitating the boat. After a brief, intense conflict in the morning, the cautious Middleton kept the attackers at a discreet distance from the enemy positions. In the afternoon, after failing to make headway against the entrenched enemy, the troops built a fortified camp just south of Batoche.

The next two days were repeats of the first. The troops marched out in the morning, attacked the Métis lines with little success and retired to their camp at night. On 12 May Middleton tried a co-ordinated action from the east and south but the southern group failed to hear a signal gun and did not attack. In the afternoon, apparently without specific orders, two impetuous colonels led several militia units in a charge. The rebels, weary and short of ammunition, were overrun.

The defeat of the Metis at Batoche all but ended the North West Rebellion. It lead to the dissolution of the Provisional government and the capture and hanging of Louis Riel. Numerous members of the Provisional government would be arrested and given sentences ranging from conditional discharges to seven years in prison. The Cree chiefs Poundmaker and Big Bear would be sentenced to three years in Prison. W.H. jackson, Riel’s personal Secretary, as well as one of the first people baptized into Riel’s religion, was acquitted by reason of insanity.

Impact of the Rebellion

The most obvious impact of the Rebellion was the fact that it guaranteed settlement of the west. Settlers from the eastern part of Canada would continue to come and the land of the aboriginals would shrink, as would their own rights. The Canadian government would also ramp up their process to assimilate the native people by supporting Residential Schools which took Native children away from their parents and forced them to be assimilated into Canadian culture.

The North-West Mounted Police which had been formed before the rebellion began came into their own as a gendarme for the Canadian Government. The Canadian government would increase the NWMP force to 1,000 men and appoint Lawrence Herchmer to modernize the force. Herchmer did indeed do just that and improved their training and methods of crime prevention in preparation of the wave of settlers that were coming. They would perform a wide array of civic duties from postmasters to custom collectors. They would help rescue lost children and lost livestock. They handled rustler gangs and robberies and murders and helped to keep the peace in the provinces, in both white communities and Indigenous reserves.

The Royal government had several chances to commute the execution of Riel. It was postponed three time, twice to allow appeals and then for a fuller medical examination of his alleged insanity. However the government in Ottawa allowed the law to take its course. This was met with widespread outrage by French Canadians, mostly in Quebec but also in Alaska. The French Canadians supported the campaign to suppress the rebellion but they strongly disagreed with the decision to execute Riel, which they argued was a purely political decision. Wilfrid Laurier's passionate denunciation of the government's action was a major step forward in his political career.

Frederick Middleton earned the thanks of the parliament of Canada, a gift of $20,000 from the Canadian government, a knighthood on 25 Aug. 1885, confirmation of his local rank of major-general, and a British pension of £100 a year for distinguished service. He would spend the rest of 1880s and the early 1890s as head of the Canadian Militia till his retirement in 1892. While there was controversy hanging over him due to his actions in the rebellion, nothing would come of it. The biggest being that he was the only one who was knighted for his service in the rebellion, which Canadian born officers felt cheated out of Glory; even though that was not the fault of the government not Middleton himself.

 

[stnylan]

This strikes me as the sort of event that can leave deep fault-lines that emerge again a generation or two (or more) later.

 

[Arnulf Floyd]

Another good and interesting chapter. This is already one of my favourite historybook AARs

 

[Specialist290]

The Metis have always fascinated me -- caught between two worlds, yet tragically not fully accepted as a part of either.

Canada has weathered its first true existential crisis as a new nation -- though, as @stnylan says, the scars over the government's rough handling of the affair will likely take generations to fully heal, if ever.

 

[RossN]

Fascinating stuff and I too have considerable sympathy for the Metis.

Was there no equivalent of the Fenian invasions in this timeline?

 

[vyshan]

Stnylan: Yea, this is the sort of thing that can lead for generations to recovery. If I get to more of the modern era with this AAR then I will cover the indigenous revival movements that would occur within the Kingdom of Canada.

Arnulf Floyd: Thanks, glad to hear it.

Specialist290: Yea, the Metis are a fascinating and tragic people.

RossN: I never got any event for the Fenians when I was playing as the UK and now as Canada. Not sure if there is an event but, I don't recall it. So it kind of slipped past me as something to cover. Though speaking of Ireland, the next chapter will have a bit about the Irish in Canada, and I plan on doing an overview of the world in a chapter or two after that, which will also be covering the various parts of the British Empire, and that will include Ireland.

 

[vyshan]

Chapter 10: Sports, Books and Reform

As Canada was going under a number of developments in the late 19th century, there were a number of more cultural changes that were going on in the Kingdom. The industrial development of the past decades was now in full swing and one of the major results of that development was a growing middle class. With the rise of the Canadian middle class this would bring a number of developments within Canadian Society

Leisure Developments
Sports and Athletics
Athletics and Sports can be traced back to the various indigenous tribes in Canada. Various tribes played ancestors of the various games that would rise to popularity in Canada. However, it was in the second half of the 19th century, that the sports started to become organized and formalized and with the rise of the middle class so to would their popularity among the people of Canada.

Three sports would emerge as the dominant sports played within the Kingdom of Canada. Ice Hockey, Lacrosse, and Cricket. While other sports, such as baseball and football, would also be played. It was those three sports that would be considered the national sports for the Kingdom.

Ice Hockey

While the second half of the 19th century would see the formalization of Ice Hockey, a number of various games were its ancestors that were played in Canada before the formalization of the rules, such as shinney as well as field hockey. It would be in Montreal that Ice Hockey would be born.

The first indoor game is recognized at starting in 1875 with with a game at McGill University with some of their students at the Victoria Skating Rink in Montreal. It was the first to also use a puck, or a wooden object that kind of looked like a puck. In 1876 the games in Montreal were played under the Hockey Association Rules(the organization in England that governed field hockey). The 1870s saw numerous hockey clubs founded starting in the Province of Quebec but soon spreading to other provinces.

By 1883, there were enough teams that Montreal hosted the first world championship of Ice Hockey at the annual Winter Carnival in Montreal. The team from McGill University won the tournament and won the carnival cub. Not long after the teams that competed at the Winter Carnival formed the Amature Hockey Association of Canada(AHAC) and played comprising challenges to the existing champion.

One of the bigger turning points was the appointment of Lord Stanley of Preston as Governor General of Canada in 1888. Lord Stanley’s sons and daughters were big hockey fans and as such he would attend a number of Games during his stay in Canada. However he felt that there was no recognition for the best team within the Kingdom of Canada. To that end he purchased a silver bowl to use as a trophy and organized the Royal Hockey Challenge Cup in 1893. First awarded to to the Montreal Hockey club, and quickly became an annual event. It would be later renamed to the Stanley Cup in his honor.

Both his children would help expand the sport throughout Canada. Lord Stanley’s son Arthur helped organize the Ontario Hockey Association. While his daughter Isobel would be one of the first women to play Ice Hockey and was instrumental in getting women involved in the sport. Her involvement helped popularize the sport for women and lead to a number of female teams being formed, though it would take far longer for women’s Ice Hockey to professionalize. The National Women's Hockey League's championship trophy is called the Isobel Cup in honor of her contributions to ice hockey.

Lacrosse

Lacrosse is a game that is the most indigenous to the kingdom of all the sports, for it traces its origins to games played by the various first people in Canada. However, the modern sport of Canada was born during the era of Confederation and rose to popularity afterwards. In 1856, William George Beers, a Canadian dentist, founded Montreal Lacrosse Club. He codified the game in 1867 to shorten the length of each game, reduce the number of players, use a redesigned stick, and use a rubber ball. The first game played under Beers' rules was at Upper Canada College in 1867.

During the process of Confederation, various exhibitions of the game were put on display for the Empire’s elite to watch and enjoy. While the first overseas exhibition games were played in 1867, it was in 1876 that the sport started to take off. For in 1876, Queen Victoria herself watched a game of lacrosse and reportedly said, "The game is very pretty to watch." That endorsement was a major part of making the game popular throughout the empire, not just in Canada. By the 1890s the sport had also started to form a women’s version as a number of English Schools started to adopt the sport.

Cricket

Cricket in Canada has a long history, it would also be in Canada that the first international game of Cricket was played between the United States and the colony of Canada. In 1858 the Canadian Cricketer’s guide reported that 81 matches had been played in the previous season, while in 1859 a visiting team from England played in montreal and Hamilton becoming the first cricket team to travel overseas for competition. By 1867 Cricket was popular enough that John A. MacDonald would declare it the National Sport of Canada.

Following Confederation, only helped to popularize Cricket throughout the Kingdom. Cricket teams would be formed in most major cities throughout the country while a number of international games were played more often, including more visits from English teams and a west indian team. A Canadian Cricket team would tour England 1887, earning praise from England. Meanwhile an Australian team would play throughout the Kingdom, as well as in the United States, in 1878.

The first annual Royal Kingdom Day intercity matches between Seattle and Victoria took place in 1887. By 1890s with the advent of advertisement, reporting, the middle class and the railway the sport was played from coast to coast within the Kingdom. Thus around 25 years after MacDonald declared it the national sport the Canadian Cricket Association would be formed in 1892.

Books and Novels
Following Confederation, much attention turned towards literacy both in English and in French in order to help promote a Canadian Identity. Schools and Universities opened up throughout the Kingdom. Writers would celebrate their newfound patriotism and were drawn to numerous organizations and movements such as the Mechanics’ Institutes, the Institute Canadien, and the Royal Society of Canada. Philosophical and scientific writing flourished during this time period and as travel became cheaper and easier it brought contact with other parts of the Kingdom and the Empire as a whole which helped encourage impressionistic and reportorial writing. Many writers would take the time to write about a number of important social movements of the day from Temperance and Prohibition to Women’s issues and Women’s suffrage.

While writers did turn their attention to the First Nation Oral tales, most writers tended to treat them as simple text whose primary purpose was to entertain children. Most regarded the native people as unsophisticated and even as a dying race, exemplified in works like Duncan Campbell Scott’s “The Onondaga Madonna”. Though some writers, principally those who were descended from native born people attempted to challenge some of these stereotypes, such as E. Pauline Johnson’s work.

The western parts of Canada wrote about the various real life experiences many settlers had in regards to moving westward and settling the plains. Themes of the British Empire were particularly strong, and their was a romanticism associated with the empire. Of course some of the more popular novels and books in the kingdom where books Britain. There was a lag between Britain and Canada with the popular books in Britain becoming popular a couple weeks later in Canada.

Following Confederation an informal group of numerous poets known as the Confederation Poets arose. Lead by Charles G.D Roberts who would be known as the Father of Canadian Poetry. There were two ‘branches’ for the Confederation Poets, one in the Maritimes and the other in Ottawa. The Ottawa branch included Archibald Lampman, Duncan Campbell Scott, and William Wilfred Campbell, while the Maritime branch included Roberts, Carman, Lampman and Scott.

By the turn of the century, a number of Canadian Books started to win widespread international popularity such as L.M Montgomery’s Anne of Green Gables(1908). It was here that Canadian literature started to be recognized as just as important as other parts of the British Empire.

Reform and Social Movements
The rise of the middle class and a growing class consciousness among the working class, lead to the rise in various social movements. From women’s suffrage to Temperance and education and the Labour movement, numerous organizations formed to help make changes for the Kingdom that they thought would be better.

It should be noted that the people involved in these movements did not always restrict themselves to just one movement. The temperance movement and Suffrage Movement was famous for their overlap but educational reforms and the Labour movement also saw a number of overlap with the other mass movements of the era.

Women’s Suffrage

While voting rights for men had been progressively lowered and eliminated since the end of the American war of Independence. By the time that the British North America Act that created the kingdom of Canada was passed, it was expanded to basically every male citizen. As the act stated “every Male British Subject, aged Twenty-one Years or upwards, being a Householder, shall have a Vote.” However what was key in that was Male. For it codified many of the provincial laws that barred women from voting.

During the later part of the 19th century, women in Canada had took to increasingly speaking out against the various issues that they faced while their strongest ire was for their lack of voting rights, people also targeted violence against women and discrimination in education and employment. Part of this was due to the fact that in the late 19th century a number of women started to graduate from University, principally in medicine, teaching and journalism.

In Ontario, widening public debate about suffrage and women’s rights produced the Toronto Women's Literary Club (TWLC) in 1876, a group devoted to higher education and intellectual development as well as to the physical welfare and employment conditions of women workers. The TWLC believed that by getting the right to vote for Women it could be used to improve women’s safety, education and employment. In 1883 they changed their name to the Toronto Women’s Suffrage Association and then in 1889 they renamed themselves again to the Royal Enfranchisement Association.

Opposition to women's suffrage was strongest in central and eastern Canada, while the western provinces appeared more receptive. Many in the west believed that women’s suffrage would be helpful in settling the west and displacing the indigenous people. This also was supported by the nascent but growing agrarian or farmer's movement in the prairies.

In addition to the Royal Enfranchisement Association, the Women’s Christian Temperance Union or WCTU was another powerful advocate for franchise in Canada. It was arguably the most influential organization pushing for women’s suffrage. They supported it as they believed that women’s suffrage would lead to prohibition of alcohol and thereby helping to keep families safe.

However despite these organizations by the turn of the century, women had only won the right to vote in a number of smaller local elections and not on the provincial or even national level. There would be numerous petitions and bills introduced across the country and the vast majority would be voted down. However as the 1900s began, many of these movements looked to the future with vigor that they shall overcome the challenge and bring about women’s suffrage.

Temperance Movement

The first temperance societies in Canada began in 1827 in Nova Scotia and Montreal. It would be in 1848 that the Sons of Temperance lodge a fraternal order that supported prohibition. The Sons of Temperance was not the only lodge that supported Temperance, others such such as the Royal Templars of Temperance, the International order of Good Templars, and the Loyal Orange Order. One of the most important temperance societies would be the Women’s Christian Temperance Union(WCTU). The WCTU was formed first in the United States and spread to Canada by Letitia Youmans, as mentioned above it was also heavily involved in the Women’s suffrage movement.

In 1874 hundreds of different societies, orders, lodges, unions, and church groups came together in Montreal to form the Royal Temperance Federation. It would become one of the most influential organizations pushing for temperance throughout the kingdom. Of course it should be noted the federation tended to discourage catholic and francophone participation, with the most vocal voices coming from the Loyal Orange Order.

That said, their were francophone organizations that pushed for temperance in Canada. The largest being Ligue Royale de Tempérance or the Royal Temperance League which would be founded in 1879. The League was the most influential out west were it often worked with the WCTU. There was a divide between quebecoise members of the League that tended to support restrictions on the liquor trade with the prairie members that supported full prohibition. Though both branches did want an exception for catholic communion.

1878 would see the Canadian Temperance Act of 1878 which made the issue of Prohibition a provincial matter. This meant that it was up to the Provinces to decide if they wanted to ban alcohol. Which many saw as a victory as they believed it opened the door for prohibition.

Another key moment was the non-binding referendum that occured in 1898. The Liberals who had just come to power in 1896, had pledged to hold a referendum. This referendum would show a narrow victory for the yes campaign. Though despite this Prime Minister Laurier did not pass a federal bill in favor of prohibition, instead following the earlier laws that left it to the Provinces.

As the turn of the century began, their was a major victory scored for prohibitionist throughout the country when in 1900 Prince Edward Island voted to outlaw the retail sale of alcohol throughout the province. While it was a small victory, it helped inspire more that they could see prohibition through.

Education Reforms
Education in Canada was always regarded as a high priority starting from its days as New France long before Canada become under the sway of the British. By the time of confederation, the big reform that was being pushed for was Public Schooling. Part of the confederation process was to help create a unified Canadian national, and in the spirit of Confederation compulsory public education was a policy that got support both from the public and political leaders.

Some resistance to schooling did develop, particularly from those reluctant to pay extra taxes, from those who did not approve of the local teacher, and from those who wished to maintain the connection between formal religious instruction and mass schooling. However, this resistance was generally focused on the cost rather than the need for mass schooling. This lead to the acceptance of Parochial schools helped resolve this conflict.

This though would bring the Prairie Language Question to the forefront, called that due to the language issue being brought up principally in the Prairies as most other provinces were largely dominated by one language while the prairies had a mix of English and french. Some of the prairie provinces sought to eliminate french and promote English to help unify and assimilate them into the broader anglo-canadian culture.

This issue would eventually become one of the many issues that brought the Liberals to power in 1896. The french in the prairies sought to deal with this by pointing to section 93 of the British North America act that defended their rights. With that plus the liberals victory, they would nullify the provincial attempt to outlaw french in schools and begin a process to support bilingualism. Though their policy here did not create an official de jur bilingual policy, it had the effect of creating a de facto bilingual policy.

One of the side effects was how this affected assimilation and immigration. While most immigrants largely assimilated into the Anglo-Canadian culture, that wasn’t true for every group. Out west there was a tendency for assimilation to follow religious lines. This was most seen with the Irish. While most irish in the rest of Canada, had a tendency to assimilate into anglo-canadian culture over time, out on the prairies Irish catholics tended to assimilate into french culture; this was also noticed in Alaska.

The Labour movement
Since the passing of the Trade Union Act that legalized trade unions in 1872, the union movement was able to look to other goals to improve the lives of workers. The biggest objective that workers and reformers sought was increasing the minimum wage and improving the work conditions. Though there were other issues that reformers sought, such as pensions and fully ending child labor that attracted plenty of attention it was those two that got the biggest support among the public.

The conditions that existed in factories throughout the kingdom was hellish. While there were a few safety conditions that existed, they were the bare minimum that was allowed. The reporting of numerous and often bloody accidents that happened on the factory floor started to change the public’s opinion. Just as bad as the working conditions were the wages and just like the working conditions, workers were paid the bare minimum required. More so than better working conditions, was the pay that was the focus of many strikes in the 1880s and 1890s.

Both issues attracted a large amount of support outside of the working class as a number of reformers who while not as radical did believe in helping and improving the condition of the workers. Rallies slowly but over time started to increase in support for better working conditions and better pay. More direct action, aka strikes, would also be deployed by the unions to fight for better working rights.

In both cases there was limited legislature action. However by the turn of the century Liberal government would create the department of Labour through the Conciliation Act. This would give hope that to reformers that they could pass acts to help the workers. Of course the lack of change allowed the nascent socialist movement in Canada to grow.

 

[Specialist290]

Fascinating to get a glimpse into the social factors and movements of the day. I imagine these movements are going to have a profound effect on politics here in the coming decades, for good or for ill.

It's a bit surprising to learn that cricket is technically Canada's official sport, even though hockey is much more popular and more associated with Canada in the public eye these days. I guess it's similar to the situation with baseball and football here -- the former is "America's favorite pastime" and has existed longer as a professional sport, but the latter is much more prominent these days.

 

[stnylan]

A very thoughtful post. Can't recall the last time I saw an AAR devote any serious space to sport.

 

[Arnulf Floyd]

Another good and interesting chapter full of historical info

 

[vyshan]

Specialist290: Yea, the social movements are going to have a bigger impact in the future. Cricket was popular but the issue was not hockey but baseball. Since as I was reading the rise of baseball took away from Cricket's popularity. However in this timeline, Cricket shall remain a popular sport in Canada.

Stnylan: The funny thing is I am not really a sports fan, but there were a couple events I noticed about Sports that was going on, so I thought to include stuff on it as the late 19th century was when a lot of our sports started to be formed. It also will not be the only time I shall talk about Sports, as after all the Olympics will be coming and later on the Empire Games(aka Commonwealth Games).

Arnulf Floyd: Glad you are enjoying it.

I will say that the next chapter covering an overview of the world will be going over the great powers and secondary powers. I will also be doing an overview of the British Empire as a whole as some interesting things have been going on, such as the British colonies in Africa and Ireland is quite different.

 

[vyshan]

Overview of the World in 1900

The British Empire
Monarch: Queen Victoria
Prince of Wales: Prince of Wales, Albert Edward
Prime Minister: Arthur Balfour

The turn of the century marked the apex of British Power. From North America to South Africa and from India to Australia, the might of Britain felt throughout the world. Her empire was an empire upon which the sun never slept.

The turn of the century brought about two ideas that were shaping how the empire would be. The first was Responsible self-government, and creating more dominion-kingdoms. The success of Canada as dominion kingdom encouraged many throughout the empire, to seek a similar status to that of Canada. The early 1900s would see a few of them start to succeed, notably Australia and New Zealand.

The second was the concept of Imperial Federation or creating a federal union for the British Empire. The idea was to mitigate colonial and dominion nationalism through a federal union. The goals of the Imperial Federation would be something that both the Liberals and Conservative parties in Britain would support though for different reasons. This concept would have a major role in the nature of the upcoming Imperial Conferences.

In 1893 there was a royal scandal surrounding Prince Albert Victor for he fell in love with Princess Hélène of Orléans, who was a Catholic. As per the laws of the United Kingdom, anyone who marries a catholic would be disqualified from inheriting the throne. To avoid scandal, Princess Hélène agreed to convert to the Anglican Church. There was some concern for the royals if Hélène’s father, the count of Paris would agree to such a decision, in the end he agreed to the marriage. Said marriage proved to be rather controversial throughout the Empire. Prince Albert Victor was destined to become the British Emperor in the future, and the thought that someone who was a catholic made quite a number ill at ease. Rumors and gossip followed the Prince and Princess. However, as the turn of the century turns, the royal couples image started to improve, not the least helped by the fact it was obvious to the world that the two were deeply in love with one another.

Ireland

Ireland would be a transformed country by the end of the 19th century. Once considered a backwater part of the United Kingdom, by 1900 things had changed considerable. Economic ties between Dublin and Belfast and the other major cities of the UK helped support the industrial growth in Ireland. Where once the Irish were not sure if they would be considered an equal part of the United Kingdom, and the idea of repealing the act of Union was an idea that was being brought up, by 1900 that had largely changed.

The turning point for Irish relations can be traced to the Irish Famine which devastated the island, and saw mass starvation, unemployment and a large wave of emigration. The British government decision, principally due to the Conservative Prime Minister, Edward Smith-Stanley the 14th earl of Derby, decided to help the Irish and provide relief.The relief came in several forms. The first was opening the ports to foreign Corn and food while prohibiting the export of food and the distillation of Grain. The second was to solve the matter of employment by providing for public works which in this time was principally through the railroads.

While many were forced to leave because of the famine, it likely would have been far more who emigrated if the policy of relief was not enacted. Now it should be noted that this wasn’t just out of the goodness of the British heart. The conservatives who were in power, were far more protectionists then they were for free-trade. They were also concerned that by doing nothing it would encourage lawlessness and disorder to spread from Ireland to Wales and Scotland, or God Forbid England. It also helped that the Earl of Derby had supported reforms before for Ireland, including setting up a national school system for Ireland.

While support for Ireland was critical in helping to resolve the Irish famine, it was not without consequences. Namely it would lead to the Liberals dominating following the 1856 election to 1868. However for the Irish by the time the Liberals came into power the worst was over.

However it was Benjamin Disraeli who is often given credit for helping to resolve most of the issues in regards to the Irish Question as he put it. He would invest considerable resources into Ireland to help solve the various issues. To resolve the matter of the absentee landlords he would introduce the Irish Land Act of 1879. The Irish Land act granted a number of tenet rights to the Irish as well as generous terms to help encourage the landlords to sell their properties. While it did not end Landlordism overnight it was the death knell for it. Of course Disraeli was acting out of pragmatism here, as the next elections proved the conservatives would have the support of Ireland.

As part of the investments into Ireland, Disraeli and the Prime Ministers that followed him, worked to integrate more firmly the major cities of Ireland. Dublin and Belfast would become busy port cities between England and Scotland. Dublin and Liverpool and Belfast and Glasgow were considered sister cities for how closely related trade between these two cities would be. It was this that helped prevent the revival of the Repeal Association from gaining strength. As this new Repeal Association, saw in Canada a model for Ireland. Yet it would remain in the fringes a fallen state compared to when O'Connell ran things. The economic and increasing political ties prevented them from gaining strength. This corresponded with the rise in technology that made communication from Ireland to the rest of the UK helped tie the islands together.

Australia and New Zealand

Born of former convicts, pioneers, bush rangers, and more Australia has seen quite the transformation as the 19th century comes to an end. Numerous Gold Rushes brought many immigrants to Australia's fair shores seeking their fortune.

With the creation of the Kingdom of Canada, the colonies of Australia and New Zealand began to look to it for inspiration. Henry Parkes would be the leading voice for Australia to follow Canada and become a dominion within the British Empire. Just as Canada had the process of Confederation to unite their country, Australia had the process of Federation. The difference was that Parkes and the other leaders in Australia were doing that before getting self-government, to show that they were worthy of it. As the year 1900 arrives, many believe that it is just a matter of time before the paperwork is signed for them to become the Kingdom of Australia. Similar to Canada and Newfoundland, New Zealand while it was original part of the conventions to unite Australia, it decided to go their own way and not seek to join with the larger country.

The principal reason was the treatment of aboriginals. Where the Australians fully embraced a settler colonialism policy, which included numerous massacres and genocide in their policy to settle Australia. New Zealand while still a settler colony came to a different conclusion following the Treaty of Waitangi. The Treaty established a British Governor of New Zealand, recognized Māori ownership of their lands, forests and other properties, and gave the Māori the rights of British subjects. In return the Māori people ceded New Zealand to Queen Victoria, giving her government the sole right to purchase land. Due to the differences in policy, this along with distance and a bit of an economic rivalry lead to them not joining with Australia.

India

Where Australia and Canada were uniting their countries and Ireland was becoming a full member of the United Kingdom, India was not. In 1857, a massive rebellion broke out in Northern India lead by various Sepoys. The rebellion saw the end of the British East India Company as the rulers of India and the British Government taking over as the direct rulers.

As they took control over India, they would invest heavily into the colony. India was the crown Jewel of the British Empire and it was going to shine like it should. To that end they invested heavily into infrastructure, from canals to railroads, roads, and ports, as well as investing into telegraph lines and canals. By 1900 India would have the largest irrigation system, one of the success stories was Assam which went from an uncultivated jungle in 1840 to a region that had 4,000,000 acres under cultivation, principally in tea plantation.

All of this resulted in integrating the economies of India and the rest of the empire. The factories of the United Kingdom desired the raw resources of India, not to mention tea. This in turn lead to goods being shipped back to India. Moreover the economic transformation lead to the beginnings of a middle class in India as well as the beginnings of an Indian market. Moreover it brought a number of upper middle class and upper class Indians into the Imperial Civil Service, which was both prestigious and paid well; that said they still had to face widespread discrimination in the ICS.

These developments lead to a number of different political and intellectual movements, the foremost of them being the Indian Nationalist Movement. The Indian nationalist Movement wanted to have more autonomy for India and for India to be represented in the various bodies of Government so that Indians could have an active role in governing their own country. That said, the prevailing view was that India should be similar to Canada, part of the Empire but autonomous from it. They saw themselves as loyal to both India and the Empire. Part of this was the realization that the British were not going to just let them go without a fight and as 1857 proved, India was not going to win that battle. This trend was best exemplified by Dadabhai Naoroji, who went as far as contesting and winning an election to the House of Commons of the United Kingdom and became the first Indian MP.

That said there was a more radical movement that wanted a complete separation from the British Empire. This more radical view also included the concept of Swaraj or self-governance, though it encompassed far more than that. During the turn of the century, this view was best exemplified by Bal Gangadhar Tilak who would famously proclaim “Swarajya is my birthright and I shall have it!” That said at the turn of the century, the more radical movement was a minority in India.

Africa

As the 19th century came to a close, Africa was divided up between numerous European Powers. The so called scramble of Africa saw many European powers carve up Africa into spheres of interest and competing claims. For the British, their main project was the Cape to Cairo Railway; a massive railway that would bring link Cape Town and Cairo together.

It was during the Scramble of Africa, that the British would launch a punitive expedition into Ethiopia. For the Ethiopian Emperor had decided to imprison several British missionaries and representatives of the British government. This would lead to the Anglo-Ethiopian War and the downfall of the Ethiopian Empire. For as the war came to a conclusion, Ethiopia was now part of the British Empire.

However it was South Africa that would attract the attention of the British Empire at the turn of the century. The exodus of the Boers to the interior of the country, allowed many provinces along the coast to be available to English settlers. This was particularly noticeable when gold and diamonds was discovered throughout Cape Colony. The British interest were at first focused on the various other native realms as they expanded in South Africa.

However, as it became 1900, the British Government’s eyes turned itself to the Boer Republics. The discovery of gold and diamonds within the region lead to a gold rush within Orange and Transvaal, but this just increased the anti-British rhetoric within the Republics. Then came the report that despite the fact that they said they abolished slavery, it was shown that it was still widely practiced, particularly within the so called Orange Free State. It is widely expected that there will be an expedition to deal with the Boers soon, the question is only a matter of when.

The German Empire

Monarch: Frederick III
Chancellor: Hermann Müller-Sagan

Germany would emerge as one of the new powers following Prussia’s unify Germany under them. Germany would emerge unified thanks to the efforts of Otto von Bismarck. The Franco-Prussian War saw the German states form into the German Empire. The formation of the German Empire transformed the balance of power in Europe.

While the British were concerned and wary of the Germans following the Unification, things would transform when Frederick the Third ascended to the throne as Kaiser of Germany. Where his father, Wilhelm the first, was a conservative and ally of Bismarck, Frederick was a liberal and rival of Bismarck. Frederick the 3rd was liberal and believed in modernizing and liberalizing the German government, following in the footsteps of the British Government.

Germany and Britain’s relationship as the 19th century ended were strong. Though there was no formal alliance between the two empires, there were many familial connections between the British and Germans as the royal houses.

At the start of the 1900s Germany found itself being dragged into the war with the United States to help their ally Spain.

The United States of America

President: William McKinley

Following the civil war in the 1860s, the United states has emerged as one of the stronger powers in the World. The process of reconstruction was able to see the country rebuilt with much of the old plantation system being destroyed if only to be replaced with factories. The civil rights act of 1875 helped pave the way for better conditions for the African Americans. While there were a number of Supreme Court cases that tried to overturn the Civil Rights act, it was found to be constitutional. It was in this period that Blanche Bruce became the Vice President ,thus the first African-American to be elected to that position,with the election of James Garfield.

Ironically despite a number of Americans being uncomfortable with the Civil Rights act and other acts to help the freeman and other ex-slaves, it did not stop the various newspapers from using that as propaganda to help Portray America as the Empire of Liberty who could “civilize even the savage African”. This was especially important in the election of 1900 as President McKinley is an ardent imperialist, who wishes for the United States to have an empire of her own.

Relations between the Kingdom of Canada and the United States are rather good. That said relations with the British Empire as a whole is much more mellowed and neutral. While they are not enemies by any stretch of the imagination, no one would consider the Americans and the British good friends. Part of this can be blamed on the fact that the Hawaiian Islands came under British Protection, which the Americans were looking to bring into their republic.

Following the sinking of the USS Maine, the united states sought to help liberate Cuba from the Spanish yoke. However, the US was not counting on the German involvement. No one is quite sure who shall come out on top in this clash.

The Republic of France

President: Émile Loubet
Prime Minister: Jacques Piou

France had seen its share of emperors rise and fall, kings rise and fall, republics rise and fall. At the end of the Franco-Prussian War that brought about the Unification of Germany, saw France go into chaos, again. After Paris attempted to plunged Europe into revolutionary war, again, A third republic would be proclaimed. The declaration of the third republic was not entirely popular within France, as monarchists and bonapartists as well as Boulangists vied for power in the new republic. Yet by 1900 the republic had managed to survive and counter these schemes.

France is considered to have the second largest colonial empire in the world after the British. With colonies throughout Africa, trade ports in India, Indochina and Korea all flying the french Tricolour. This has brought wealth and prestige flowing back into mainland France. Which in turn is fueling the french government's drive to rebuild and recover from the Franco-Prussian war. Both in terms of prestige but also military tactics and weaponry.

While France reserves its primary hatred for the German Empire, relations between the French and the British are not much better. The main question on most people’s mind is when France shall seek revenge and strike Germany, with most regarding it a matter of when not if.

The Russian Empire
Monarch: Nicholas the Second
Prime Minister: Pavel Milyukov

The Russian Empire had seen many changes in the past few decades. Alexander the second had passed away in 1889 leaving a legacy of massive change in the Empire both politically and socially. The establishment of the Duma and enfranchisement of the population allowed The empire, this followed the abolishment of serfdom.

His son, Nicholas would continue these policies and promote liberalism throughout the empire.In particular Nicholas’ policies focused on industrialization and developing the empire. Of course this did not sit well with everyone. A movement calling for the restoration of Absolutism had attracted a lot of support within the Empire, and it is rumored that Nicholas’ brother Alexander supports them or worse is a member.

The great game that was played within Central Asia and persia for influence over the various kingdoms of the steppes and mountains by 1900 was well and truly over with. With that chapter closed it helped in mending the relations between the British and Russian Empires. While they are not friendly, they are by no means negative or cold.

Austria-Hungary

Monarch: Franz Joseph I
Prime Minister(Austria): Ernest von Koerber
Prime Minister(Hungary):Kálmán Széll

The Dual-Monarchy of Austria-Hungary is an empire in decline. Separatists that seek to break the empire apart abound from Serbians to italians to Hungarians. While radical communists, militant socialists, and radical liberals all seek to transform the empire. What is clear is that there will need to be major reforms to the empire to help keep it surviving.

The British relations with the Austrians are warm but not friendly. What is concerning is the far greater relationship between Austria-Hungary and France. Even if the Austrians are declining that does not mean it is a minor power by any stretch, and an alliance between the Austrians and French

The Kingdom of Italy

King: Victor Emmanuel III
Prime Minister: Tommaso Tittoni

The kingdom of Italy is one of the newest great powers. Having arrived out of the kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont, the kingdom of Italy has become one of the newer great powers. Unlike other european powers which have by 1900 evolved into a constitutional monarchy, Italy has not. The Italian King still holds a great deal of power in the Italian Parliament, while the political party of La Destra(the Right) has a stranglehold on politics.

In this mix of politics, you have radical liberals even further radical socialists. The socialists in particularly have quite the large amount of support within the factories throughout the kingdom. While the Kingdom has become a great power, some wonder if the next few decades will see it stay a kingdom at all.

While Italy has control of most of the Italian Peninsula, the region of Veneto is still under control by the Austrians. This is something that rankles the Italians and that they seek to change by bringing Vento into Italy.

The Kingdom of the Netherlands:
Monarch: Wilhelmina
Prime Minister: Nicolaas Pierson

The newest Great power, the Kingdom of the Netherlands has recovered from the Belgian revolution of 1830 which saw Belgium ripped from them. It has seen its prestige recover and its navy strengthened. Industrialization has brought further benefits to the kingdom that has allowed it to claim the spot of a Great Power.

In contrast to other great powers that wanted to get involved in Africa, the Netherlands for the most part has ignored Africa. It has instead turned its attention to Asia. From its colonies in the Middle East such as Bahrain, Qeshm, and Khashaba to the Dutch east indies where it dominates the east indies as a whole.

Relations between the British Empire and the Dutch are largely friendly. While they are not the best of friends, they have a cordial relationship.


Important Secondary Powers
The Empire of Mexico
Monarch: Emperor Felipe the First
Prime Minister: Ramón Corral


The Empire of Mexico had seen its country change dramatically in the past century. Mexico emerged as an Empire from the Spanish Empire and though the first Emperor Agustín de Iturbide would be deposed. The reign of el Presidente Santa Anna which saw the lost of most of northern Mexico to America and his rule being increasingly tyrannical. Following the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, Santa Anna would be overthrown in what would become known as El Revolución Gloriosa or the Glorious Revolution. This revolution saw Mexico choosing to create a constitutional monarchy with Agustín Jerónimo de Iturbide y Huarte, the son of the first emperor as the first emperor.

This revolution brought about the needed stability to Mexico. Since the Glorious Revolution, american investment has entered into Mexico. In 1872 Emperor Augustin Jeronimo would die at the age of 65 and his son Salvador would inherit the throne. Salvador would rule Mexico till his tragic passing in 1897 which would see the throne pass to his son Felipe.

Relations between Mexico and the British are good. The growth that has followed in the second half of the 19th century has allowed Mexico to become a friendly trading partner to the British Empire.

The Ottoman Empire

Monarch: Abdul Hamid II
Grand Vizier: Halil Rifat Pasha

The Ottoman Empire is the sickman of Europe. It has seen its empire weakened from separatism. From the Bulgarians, Romanians, Greeks, Serbians, Albanians, and more have damaged the empire. Its hold on the Balkans is slim. Reform is desperately needed to fix the empire.

Into this is the Ottoman Empire and Caliph has begun a process of reform. He has reformed the bureaucracy and begun the process of liberalization. This has included making the Grand Vizier position an elected position. Though this democracy is limited to Turks and to the wealthy, it does mark the first step. Moreover these reforms have also brought about industrialization to the empire, which has begun to create a middle class in the empire.

Relations between the British and the Ottomans are rather friendly. Though the British are one of the few Great Powers that have good relations with the Ottomans as the rest of the Great Powers do not have good relations with them. Principally due to many of them supporting various separatist movements if not outright taking Ottoman territory.

The Empire of Japan

Emperor: Meiji
Prime Minister: Ōkuma Shigenobu

The Meiji restoration that brought about the end of the Shogunate is the beginnings of Modern Japan. The reign of Emperor Meiji has seen the country modernize and reform. Following the concept of Fukoku kyōhei or enrich the country and strengthen the armed forces. The Empire is looking to catch up and overtake the west.

At the same time it is looking and preparing to build a colonial empire of its own. The taking of the Island of Formosa marks the beginnings of the Japanese colonial Empire. Unfortunately for the Japanese this is likely to bring them into conflict with another European power that rules in the Pacific.

Relations between the British and the Japanese are cordial. The Japanese have begun to make overtures to a number of European powers as part of their policy of modernization. The foremost of them being the Germans and the British.