Western Europe
Western Europe’s medieval history had been noted for the failure for any consolidated national units to emerge. Everywhere from the British Isles, to France, Spain, Italy and Scandinavia was divided between competing warlords. For much of the Medieval period the Holy Roman Empire, ruling over most of Germany, the Low Countries, Northern Italy, and much of the Holy Land was the hegemon of the Catholic world. However, in the latter Middle Ages this dominance began to slip as the Empire’s grip loosened in Italy and in its Germanic heartland it was challenged by the Thuringian Kingdom.
However, the Late Middle Ages had marked an important transition for the region. For one, Islam was only finally extinguished as a threat to Europe at the turn of the century when a Crusade had destroyed the Sultanate of Andalusia – the last Muslim power in the west. Although there remained large numbers of Muslims in Spain, the rest of western Europe was solidly unified under the religious authority of the Catholic Pope. Meanwhile, although for most of its history western Europe had been much poorer and less civilised than the empires to its east, this gap had shortened noticeably, with Europe increasingly capable of equalling its counterparts in the eastern Mediterranean and beyond.
Eastern Europe
From piously Catholic Poland in the west to Tengri Chernigov in the east, Eastern Europe sat upon a civilizational fault line between Europe and Asia, the settled and nomadic, Christianity and Paganism. For much of the Early Middle Ages, the great competition in the region had been a race between Rome and Constantinople to Christianise the Slavs. Although there remained a sizeable residual Greek Christian population scattered across Russia, Byzantiums long period of internal crisis during the High Middle Ages had led to the withdrawal of Orthodoxy from this fight, allowing Catholicism to sweep over the Baltic, and into the Steppe and much of Russia. For a time almost every King in the land swore allegiance to Rome, until the Mongols’ Tengri revolution reignited a pagan backlash in central Russia that allowed the Chernigovians to emerge as the greatest power among the Russians.
Byzantium
For a period of almost two hundred years the Byzantine Empire was engulfed in an anarchy that brought the empire very close to collapse. Its long crisis began with the failed efforts of Konstantinos XI to pursue a religious communion with the west at the beginning of the thirteenth century, that led to a Catholic Crusade after his overthrow and years of religious infighting to purge the Latin influence. Hot on the tails of this crisis was the westward migration of the Cumans – who settled in central Anatolia, along the Danube and in Serbia. This was then followed by the terrors of the Black Plague and an even more damaging religious schism between Old Orthodoxy and the Paulicians. Generations of religious fighting followed before the empire was reunited under the rule of a confidant Paulician dynasty. Nonetheless, the ruling religious sect remained a minority within the empire in 1438, even as their numbers and authority continued to grow rapidly. Through the Byzantine Renaissance, power had been reasserted in southern Italy, the Balkan Cumans subjugated and their Anatolian equivalents reduced while Roman power was also projected across the Black Sea - influencing the Alanian Kingdom and stretching as far as the Volga and Caspian.
North Africa and Egypt
The Crusader era that began in the twelfth century and continued all the way into the early fifteenth century completely reordered the Mediterranean world. At its outset, Muslims ruled most of Iberia, southern Italy, the entire North African coastline and the Levant. By its end all these lands were under Christian, mostly Catholic, rule. Indeed, from Morocco in the west to Egypt in the east, the North African coast was controlled by a string of Crusader states – in which minority Latin elites, sometimes intermingled with indigenous Christian Berber and Coptic natives, lorded over large Muslim populations. By far the wealthiest and most important of these Kingdoms was Egypt. The Land of the Nile was divided between the Crusader Kingdom in the north and an Islamic Emirate in the south – mirroring Egypt’s wider cultural and religious division between the Copts, who dominated the Delta, and Arabs, who predominated in Upper Egypt. Most interestingly, indigenous Coptic Christianity had largely been extinguished by the Crusades, just as they had preserved their culture, as the Coptic Church had been forced into a communion with Rome and the adoption of Catholic doctrines, with only a few dissident sects holding out.
The Steppe and Caucuses
From the early thirteenth century until the end of the fourteenth century the Eurasian Steppe had been mostly unified under the leadership of the Mongolian Empire and its Tengri faith. In the space of a single generation in the first half of the fifteenth century this power struggle broke down completely. Religious emerged as Hindu preachers from India began to penetrate into the Khanate, winning over a number of tribes in Central Asia and breaking the monolithic power of the Tengri religious elite that had held the empire together for so long. When the Great Khan himself grew close to the Hindus, civil war broke out that led to the splintering the empire into a hundred smaller tribal states. On the western frontier, one of the chief beneficiaries of the Mongols’ demise were the Alans, a Greek Christian people who formed a Kingdom dominating the Caucuses – taking over from the Armenians to rule Georgia, a realm nominally claimed by King Aboulgharib in Nineveh.
Arabia and East Africa
The lands around the Red Sea were home of the pygmy Caliphates. In Arabia, the Sulaymans – closely allied to their powerful friends in Persia – were the Sunni Caliph. Across the sea in Ethiopia the Shia Caliphate ruled a kingdom with a Christian majority in the Ethiopian Highlands under the exiled Fatimid dynasty, a family who in generations passed had controlled much of the Middle East and North Africa from their Egyptian territorial base. However neither Caliph was truly a major power in their own right, surrounded by middling tribes and kingdoms in a region that was the plaything for the geopolitical scheming of the greater empires to the north.
The Timurid Empire
In 1438, the Timurid Empire was the largest, richest, most populous and militarily powerful state west of China. Although the insatiable expansion it had undergone under its famous founder Timur Khan had largely ebbed away after his death, the empire had held together in the face of civil wars among Timur’s successors and solidified into a lasting force in Eurasia. Governed by a relatively small and exclusive military caste of Sunni Muslim Khazars, its dominions stretched from the Himalayas and Indus Valley to the Zagros and Caucuses, from the Aral Sea to the Indian Ocean. Culturally, the Timurids had transformed the Persian world – restoring the supremacy of Sunni Islam over the region and in doing so making the Timurid Khan the effective leader of the Islamic world.
India
As had been the case since the early middle ages, India was dominated by a handful of powerful regional empires – each among the richest nations in the world, with millions of subjects. The Hindi states in the north of the continent had been shaken by the conquests of the Timurid empire over the past generation and their failure to unify sufficiently to expel them from the Indus valley. The overlord of the Dravidian south – the Tamil-speaking Cholans – controlled a more disjointed networked of semi-independent vassals and, despite its great resources and commercial strength, was comparatively backward relative to the north.
The Five Kingdoms assembled by the Armenian dynasty were startling in their ethnic, religious, cultural, economic and historical diversity.
1. Assyria
The Kingdom of Assyria corresponded to the Mesopotamian core of the old Assyrian realm, Beth Nahrain, – broadly the boundaries of the Kingdom left behind by her first heroic Kings, Ta’mhas the Great and Nahir the Bear. Through the centuries Mesopotamia had acquired something of a cross-cultural sense of ethnic identity built around the strength of the Church of the East and the history and traditions of the Kingdom.
Although legally united into a single Kingdom, Assyria was divided into two distinctive provinces – Assyria-Superior, sometimes called Assyria Proper, in the north and Babylonia stretching from Baghdad to the Persian Gulf. Assyria-Superior formed the core homeland of ethnic Assyrians, also corresponding with ancient Assyria. It was only part of the empire in which they were a large majority – although even then they formed only in the region of two thirds of the population, with large numbers of Kurds, Armenians, Cumans, Jews, Arabs and even Greeks (mostly concentrated around Edessa) living into the imperial heartland.
While Assyria-Superior formed the Syriac homeland, the majority in Babylonia were Arabic. The Arabs were certainly not totally dominant, with the upper aristocracy in the region being firmly Assyria, and Assyrians forming a plurality in its greatest city of Baghdad. Like Assyria-Superior there were also a number of other minority populations including Kurds along the fringes of the Zagros, Jews in the major cities and the distinctive Mandaean people indigenous to the area. Babylonia differed from the north religiously as well. While its main urban centres of Baghdad and Basra were strongly Nestorian, Islam remained strong in the countryside – the area between the two cities having famously birthed the Zikri clique that briefly supported King Sabrisho in power in the 1410s. But perhaps the greatest distinction between Babylonia and Assyria-Superior was the importance of slavery – with plantation agriculture using large numbers of East African slaves having been a part of its way of life for centuries.
2. Syria
Syria had historically been one of Assyria’s most troublesome and independent territories, as well as a battlefield between Nineveh and Constantinople for much of the Late Medieval era. Culturally, with the exception of the area around Antioch that was majority Greek with a sizeable Armenian element, the Syrian countryside was overwhelmingly Arab while its cities were centres of cosmopolitanism with large Armenian, Assyrian and Jewish communities. Religiously, the Kingdom was a genuine mosaic. There were residual Muslim, mostly Shia, populations scattered along the fringes and the Druze homeland to the east of Damascus. Yet aside from these groups, and the urban Jews, Syria had been mostly Christianised – although splintered into around half a dozen major sects. Naturally, the sizeable Assyrian minority was Nestorian, in and around Damascus the infamous Messalians had formed a plurality. In the Lebanon the indigenous Marionite Church, which like the Nestorians used Syriac as a liturgical language although with their own Christological positions, was the largest grouping – focused in a core around Beirut Tripoli, with Messalians influence seeping into the mountains around Baalbek, Catholicism creeping north from Tyre and Orthodoxy advancing southward. Further north, the two largest religious groupings in Syria were variants of divided Greek Christendom, concentrated in the old territories of Byzantine Syria – Old Orthodoxy, strongest around Antioch, and Byzantine Paulicianism, the largest faith in Aleppo. The geography of Syria’s nobility mirrored the popular religious divide – with partially Hellenised Greek Christian Arabs forming the elite in the north and west, while Nestorian Assyrians, reliant on local tribal leaders, controlled the land around Damascus in the south.
3. Philistia
One of the least populous parts of the Five Kingdoms, but also one with more blood spilt over it than most. Philistia was the outcome of the long Palestinian Wars that raged through the first two decades of the fourteenth century as Niv the Hammer’s ambition to secure his birthright led Assyria into an endless war of attrition. The nobility of the Kingdom were quite distinctive, with a culturally European Catholic Latin elite dominant in the west, while their presence was somewhat weaker east of the Jordan River where Syriac-speaking landowners had made some traction. Much like Assyria-Superior, Philistia was also home to sizeable communities of Cumans who had settled there at the conclusion of the Palestinian Wars, many of whom were involved in generational military service. Among the commonfolk, the large majority of the populace were Arabs, they were religiously divided. Along the coast the Arabs were mostly Catholic, but on the Jordan River Nestorian preachers had found great success in proselytising among them – often to the chagrin of Latin gentry, meanwhile in the deserts on fringes of the desert Shia Bedouins predominated. The most distinctive part of the Kingdom was, inevitably, the Holy City of Jerusalem itself. There Nestorians formed a very narrow plurality, but there were also large numbers of Catholics, Jews, Muslims and smaller numbers from other Christian denominations.
4. Armenia
The Kingdom of Armenia centred on Lake Van, Aboulgharib’s inheritance from his father and the cradle of Armenian culture for so long as the heartland of successive Medieval Armenian states, was just one, distinctive, part of a wider Armenian nation. The Kingdom itself was relatively ethnically homogenous, saving for some pockets of Cumans in the west, Kurds around Lake Urmia and long-established Assyrian minorities throughout. Furthermore, Levon’s revolution to re-establish Oriental Orthodoxy had largely succeeded – pushing Greek-rite clerics from the territory. This set the Armenians of the Kingdom aside from the large populations who lived within the Byzantine empire to the west and under Georgian rule around Yerevan to the north, who were mostly followers of Old Orthodoxy. Further to this, Armenians lived scattered as a mostly urban minority throughout the Middle East, mostly in the other parts of the Assyrian empire. Many of these groups had drifted to the religious majority in their respective regions – Nestorianism in Mesopotamia, Orthodoxy in Syria.
5. Georgia
Georgia was nominally the fifth Kingdom of the empire. Having for a time been ruled by Aboulgharib’s illustrious father Levon, Georgia had fallen out of Armenian hands in the face of popular revulsion at his religious reforms and had since come under the orbit of the Alans. Assyria’s King nonetheless, continued to lay claim to the northern land. Georgia housed sizeable Old Orthodox and Paulician religious currents, yet its population were overwhelmingly Greek Christians, hostile to the Oriental Orthodoxy of Armenia and Nestorianism of Assyria alike.
6. Arabia
The true fifth Kingdom of the Assyrian realm was Arabia. Lacking the formal legal structures or recognition of the other Kingdoms of the composite Assyrian state, the Arabian territories were mostly ruled according to local tribal customs and the whims of their, mostly ethnic Assyrian, feudal overlords. The region itself was far more culturally homogenous than the fertile crescent, with Arab Bedouins forming almost the entire population beyond an enslaved African minority. Religiously, the region was far less united. In the desert territories south of Philistia, Shia Islam predominated while in Oman and the Gulf the Sunni were in the majority outside of the Nestorian tribal heartlands in Kuwait and Qatar and Shia Bahrain. Meanwhile, the maritime island of Socotra – with its unique population – was home to one of the oldest Nestorian communities in the world.