Chapter 19
“Austria would rather lose a province by war than give it away around a green baize table.”
- Alexander Mensdorff-Pouilly, Austrian Foreign Minister and Chancellor (1865)
The rustling of the stiff paper echoes loudly around the quiet office on Wilhelmstraße. Von Jägow glances to the bottom of the letter, and sees that it is personally signed by Sonnino, the Italian Foreign Minister, and addressed to his counterpart in Vienna. It starts innocuously enough, praising the victories of the Austro-Hungarian armies against Russia, offering best wishes for future success, and touching on the ‘long and warm relationship between our countries’. (“
No mention of the way they abandoned their alliance with us as soon as things got dangerous”, thinks von Jägow).
It then goes on to speak supportively of the Central Powers’ plans to reorganise Europe, and states the willingness of the Kingdom of Italy to take a full part in the new order, and even send her troops to fight alongside those of Germany and the Dual Monarchy. (“
Yes, now that we’re winning”). However, in the interests of reducing friction between the allied powers, and satisfying the legitimate aspirations of her people, certain adjustments will be necessary. (“
Uh-oh. Now we’re getting to it.”)
The peoples of Trentino and Trieste are Italian in blood, culture and language, despite being still under Habsburg rule. Surely the Imperial and Royal Government can appreciate that these people will fight more eagerly and fiercely for the common cause if they are first reunited with their motherland, and march to war under the Italian flag? Austria-Hungary can hardly begrudge the loss of territory, after all, considering the extensive lands she is annexing in Poland and Ukraine…
Von Jägow skims through the rest of the letter, which contains only the usual diplomatic platitudes, then tosses it back on the desk and faces the questioning eyes of the Austro-Hungarian ambassador.
“Your thoughts, Herr Jägow?”
“It seems the Italians have realised they made the wrong decision. They want to get back on board, at a price. How has Austria-Hungary responded?”
“Nothing official, as yet. We thought it best to seek your opinion first – but speaking off the record, our first reaction was to laugh in their faces.”
“I should think so! Conniving little weasels. They stand aside from the main fighting, then try to get themselves a seat at the victory table – and have the audacity to demand payment for helping us! You’d have Germany’s full support in telling them to go to Hell.”
“It may not be quite that simple. Our forces are heavily committed to Russia, leaving our Western borders thinly defended. And the Italian army is strong – ahem, well, at least it’s big. They outnumber us 5 to 1 in that theatre – and the Italian navy is not to be despised either. They could be a danger to us – or a useful ally. And remember, they may also be approaching the British to see what they can get from them instead.”
“Well then, perhaps we should at least consider their demands. Would your government be willing to give them what they ask?”
“Out of the question. If we cede territory to Italy just because its inhabitants speak Italian, the whole Empire would fall apart. We’d have our Rumanians and Slavs wanting to leave too, which would make the Hungarians scream; the Czechs, Slovaks and Poles would all call for independence – it would be a nightmare. We could, however, consider alternative arrangements; perhaps a nice financial subsidy. What do you think?”
“A cash bribe, eh? It would certainly be worth a try; but I’m not sure they’ll be interested.”
“No, I think you are right. We will make the proposal: but we will also alert our General Staff to begin military preparations just in case. I advise you to do the same.”“Agreed.”
Faced with this news, High Command conducts an urgent reassessment of the military situation. It is not promising. The only German unit within 500 km of the Italian border is the IV Kavallerie Korps in Toulon. Now, this is certainly an elite force – being perhaps the only cavalry unit in the world to have the destruction of an enemy fleet among its battle honours – but it is no match for the 30+ divisions of the Italian Army. The Austro-Hungarians, too, only have half a dozen or so divisions in the region.
Fortunately, there is one factor in our favour. When the Italians first made their
démarche to Vienna, our troops were locked in bloody conflict on the Eastern Front; but by the time the news reached us, OHL had already decided to call off the attacks and switch to a defensive strategy in Russia. That gives us an opportunity: with fewer troops required to hold the trench lines along the Volga, we are able to withdraw substantial forces from the east to shore up our defences against Italy. Those divisions in the best fighting condition are combed out and entrained for the Mediterranean, and the surplus army-level formations are disbanded and their assets also brought back home. Two new armies are formed for the Southern Front, numbered 2nd and 3rd (since the previous formations with those designations are no longer active). 2. Armee is the first to be organised, stationed in the Rhône Valley under the command of Field Marshal von Kluck. Meanwhile, Hindenburg – currently at a loose end – is sent to München to take responsibility for 3. Armee which is gradually forming there.
It seems these precautions are justified – because our top field agent in England (working under her cover identity as a governess in Kensington) reports extensive traffic between Italy’s London embassy and the British government. Something is clearly in the pipeline.
The situation along the Italian border on 15 May 1915
While we prepare for whatever action Italy has in mind, the war continues on other fronts. Field Marshal Ludendorff, together with the Austria commander Conrad, begins a limited offensive in southern Russia along the line of the Trans-Siberian Railway. However, the Eastern Section of OHL – now under the control of Generalmajor Hoffman – determines that one more target needs to be captured: the port of Archangelsk. As long as this remains in Russian hands, the British will be able to ship supplies and munitions to them and keep their resistance alive. The German troops are naturally reluctant to carry out another offensive in northern Russia, considering the disasters which met their previous attempts in this area, and especially now that their best troops have been withdrawn. However, orders are orders, and on 30 April the German army crosses the Severnaya Dvina to launch its second attack on the city. They do have one advantage, however: the better weather of Spring means that air support from Siegert’s Luftarmee will be available: and a battle squadron of the Navy has also been sent to skirt the ice around Nordkapp and enter the White Sea to provide naval bombardment. Despite this assistance, the battle is long drawn out and slow, and the troops will still be locked in combat at the end of May.
In Africa, our expeditionary force is fighting bravely: but the bitter truth is that we have no reinforcements to spare for them, and they are doomed. The French recapture Fez on 1 May, and Orléansville on 29 May. In contrast, the Turks have now successfully completed their occupation of Egypt and the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. Further south, we are enjoying better success too: Lettow-Vorbeck’s askaris have entered Southern Rhodesia, and on 7 May both Bulawayo and Salisbury fall into our hands. Continuing the advance, they cross into the Union of South Africa in mid-May, and capture Johannesburg on 24 May – to a rapturous welcome by the Boers. These victories gives Foreign Minister von Jägow a brilliant idea.
African soldiers of Lettow-Vorbeck’s victorious expeditionary force
He sends a telegram to the German consul in Addis Ababa, ordering him to offer the
Negus negusti of Abyssinia an alliance with Germany. This will create a river and rail communications link from Turkish-held Cairo all the way through the Sudan and Abyssinia to German-occupied British East Africa, and then on down through our own colony towards the Cape. Lettow-Vorbeck will therefore be able to receive supplies and ammunition from home. Almost as important to us is the political value of the alliance. Although Abyssinia is a mere native power, whose tribal warriors use spears and shields as well as the occasional primitive musket, she was able to inflict a humiliating defeat on Italy some 20 years earlier at the battle of Adowa. The insult to Italy’s manhood was not merely symbolic, either – since the Abyssinians never signed the Hague Convention, and their treatment of captured prisoners tends to be rather bloody, barbaric, and not fit for discussion in polite company. The
Negus is only too happy to agree to an alliance, and the message this sends to Rome is unmistakeable.
Nor is Italy’s response slow in coming: on 23 May they announce the signing of the Treaty of London with Britain, and declare war on Austria-Hungary. We naturally come to our ally’s defence, and a new front of the war has opened.
As expected, the fighting begins with an immediate Italian offensive over the River Piave towards Trieste. This city soon falls, and the Italians continue their attack into Slovenia. Ljubliana is captured on 1 June, and the Austro-Hungarian forces are in disarray. Unexpectedly, the Italians also launch a second offensive westwards, through the Alps towards Grenoble. This takes us by surprise, because von Kluck has not been idle. Not even waiting for Hindenburg’s 3. Armee to come up in support, he has launched an immediate spoiling attack towards Genoa, on 27 May. The numbers are relatively even – 157,000 Germans versus 178,000 Italians – but our troops are better-trained and equipped, and von Kluck hopes that the enemy will still be disorganised from mobilisation. Speed and shock are our tactics, just as they were in France – that, at least, is the hope.
Unfortunately, the net effect is to imitate a revolving door, as our army marches east just as the Italians to their north march west. Grenoble falls on 5 June, and only Hindenburg’s men hard-marching down from the north stand between the Italian army and an undefended France…
The war has also spread to East Africa. A Turkish force advances on the Italian positions in Massawa. However, the Italians are busy too, and their colonial forces in Somaliland launch an invasion of our new ally Abyssinia. Crossing the bleak Ogaden desert, they arrive in the first Abyssinian settlement: to find it deserted, the wells poisoned; and thrust into the ground in the centre of the town square, a carved staff festooned with strange, shrivelled objects. Approaching more closely, the Italian troops realise to their utter horror that they are looking at dried-up trophies removed from the last Italian soldiers to pass this way… and their demoralisation is completed by the news that German forces from Ostafrika are advancing on their position from the south.
The war in East Africa
Lettow-Vorbeck’s advance
The colonial war is progressing well: but in Europe, the situation is finely balanced. Will Italy’s stab in the back succeed, or meet the fate it so richly deserves?
To be continued