Wars of the Emperors – 1546-1559
With the majority of the Polish army in the Upper Volga region putting down the rebellion of the Tverian Tatars, the Arab invasion achieved rapid successes. Sweeping away the limited Polish forces in the region, the Arabs and their Turkish rebel allies overran the North Caucuses and Caspian region – capturing Astrakhan without a fight. As the progressed deeper into Polish territory, the Arabs found their path blocked by the fortress of Ust-Medveditskaya situated between the Don and Volga rivers. Defended by just 500 Cossacks, the Arabs expected the fort to act as little more than a spead bump in their push towards the Polish heartland.
The Cossacks bravely refused to surrender to the attackers and showed incredible fortitude in resisting efforts to storm the fort. It would take the Arabs almost five months to finally overwhelm Ust-Medveditskaya and slaughter its defenders. The leader of the Cossacks – Semyon Khalinshevksy – would become a national hero, celebrated for his patriotic determination to fight to the very last. Indeed, the performance of the Cossacks at the siege would contribute to the continued development of their reputation as fierce fighters, steadfastly loyal to the motherland. In the context of the war, Ust-Medveditskaya was incredibly significant as it gave the Poles the time they needed to bring their army south from Tver and bolster their numbers with new recruits. This meant that by the time the fortress fell, the Arabs were no longer in a position to pour into the Tsardom’s Russian speaking heartland but were instead put on the defensive from a Polish counterattack.
Following the arrival of the mainstay of the Polish army in the region the two opposing armies engaged in a shadow conflict – fighting a string of minor engagements across Poland’s south-eastern territories through 1542 and 1543. However, for both parties the war was proving incredibly costly – pushing the Arabs and Poles towards a direct confrontation that could break the deadlock. This came in 1544 at the Battle of Kabadia. With two evenly matched armies, both almost 60,000 strong, this was one of the largest battles of the era. Ably marshalled by Dobrynia Adalhard, the Prince of Prussia, the Poles suffered greater losses than the Arabs but were able to claim victory on the battlefield through the power of their charging hussars. Following Kabadia the Arabs began to fall back from the North Caucuses – allowing the Poles to liberate most of the territory they had occupied, including Astrakhan, by the end of the year and isolating the Oghuz Turks.
The Caucuses were not the only front in this conflict. In the Carpathians, the Pannonians had invaded Polish-ruled Slovakia at the outset of the war and even raided the lands around Krakow before the Tsar’s armies arrived in the region and drove them back across the border. By the Battle of Kabadia, much of their own country was under Polish occupation. In the Black Sea, the Arabs had left the fighting to their navy, sinking the small Polish fleet and tormenting her ports. The Arabs also sought to ferment rebellion in the region, achieving some success through sending Georgian agitators from their own lands to provoke the Crimean Georgians to take up arms. The most important front outside of the Caucuses was in the Middle East. Cut off from the Motherland, Israel and Ascalon were hopelessly outnumbered and could only hope to slow the Arab advance. By mid-1543 all of Israel outside of a few holdout Zealot fortresses had fallen, with the Kohen Gadol negotiating Jerusalem’s surrender in exchange for guarantees that the Jewish holy sites would be protected. Ascalon proved a tougher opponent for the Muslims, with its last fortresses on the Palestinian coast holding out through to 1544 while its capital at Damietta would remain in Jewish hands right to the end of the war.
After Kabadia, the conflict in the Caucuses developed into a gruelling war of attrition – but the momentum was flowing in only one direction. The Poles gradually fought their way into the South Caucuses – capturing Tbilisi and Derbent in 1545 and Yerevan in 1546. The losses endured by both sides in the mountain passes of the region were astonishing as hundreds of thousands lost their lives. In the Middle East, the Jews achieved some successes. As the Arabs withdrew troops from this front to send more men to the Caucasian meatgrinder, the Jews counterattacked – pushing the Arabs from the Egyptian Delta and, combining with Jewish rebels in the area, liberating the Levantine coastline from Gaza to Jaffa. The war had clearly been won, and the Arabs were willing to come to terms. Some in the Polish camp wished to continue to fight deep into the Caliphate and push for annexations in the Caucuses, the Levant and even Constantinople. However, these voices were outweighed by the heavy price being paid by the empire to prosecute the conflict. Four years of fighting had seen the Tsardom’s supposedly limitless reserves of manpower run dry, while the heavy debts taken on to pay for the army were severely straining the empire’s finances. Poland therefore agreed to peace in exchange for a huge tribute from the Caliph that would allow the Tsar to repay the majority of his war loans.
Alongside concerns over finance and loss of life, one of the main factors pushing Igor III towards peace in 1546 was fear of the enemy within. The Tsar had been deeply disturbed by the number of his own subjects who had collaborated to a lesser of greater extent with the invading Arabs. Fearing that there existing a vast fifth column within Polish society that might push the Tsardom back towards the chaos that his grandfather had conquered – he seized the opportunity to move against his real and imagined enemies, instituting a new reign of terror. Lands were seized, titles revoked, relatives kidnapped as collateral, nobles arrested and some executed. With the majority of the rebels during the Arab war having been Tatars, and to a lesser extent Georgians, the hammer fell heaviest on these groups, although many Jewish Boyars were impacted as well. This targeting of the Tatars marked the final break between the Tsar and his long-time chancellor Oronartai Belgunutei. By 1546 the two aging allies, the Tsar 60 years old and his chancellor 63, had ruled Poland together for decades. Belgunutei’s Muslim religion had placed him under suspicion from the beginning of the war with the Arabs, straining his relationship with Igor, but it was the post-war purges that finally broke this bond. In 1547 Oronartai had been dismissed as chancellor, and in early 1548 he had come close to being arrested by the Tsar’s men before a personal appeal to the sovereign spared him.
Igor III’s reign of terror was cut mercifully short in 1548 by the Tsar’s peaceful death. Unfortunately, there would be no peaceful passing of the torch from one generation to the next as Poland quickly sank into a succession war. Igor III had had two children – Illiya and Natalya. Illiya had died in a hunting accident in 1541, leaving behind a young son Lev who was nine years old in 1548. Igor’s daughter Natalya had married the Prince of Smolensk and given birth to Nikita Andrei, twenty-two at the Tsar’s death. Young Lev was the legal successor and was duly crowned Tsar Lev III shortly after his grandfather’s death. The quest of the new Tsar’s regency council was the spark for civil war. Igor’s terror had reminded much of the nobility of the dangers of untrammelled monarchical power, and many hoped to rebalance the state in favour of the Boyars once more. Furthermore, there was a clear appetite among the Jewish nobility and Rabbinate to restore the supremacy of the true faith. However, the old dog Oronartai Belgunutei, determined to hold together the humanist imperium he had forged over his lifetime, moved to seize control of the government himself by taking on the role of Lev’s sole regent. The reformist faction of the nobility therefore looked to Igor’s elder grandson, Nikita Andrei, to lead a rebellion on their behalf.
Nikita won a great deal of support among the Jewish Boyars in Poland’s core territories – taking control of Smolensk and much of White Ruthenia, including Minsk itself, while winning the backing of many of the nobles of Galicia, Old Poland and Ukraine. Unfortunately for him, the Boyars were not the force they had once been. The imperial army, depleted yet at the same time battle hardened from the recently concluded Arab war, remained solidly behind their legal sovereign, while the Tatar lords of the east rallied strongly behind the regent, one of their own. The conflict was therefore relatively brief. The pretender’s army met with the loyalists at two key battles in 1548 at Brest, in White Ruthenia, and then Smolensk – facing defeat on both occasions. After these engagements the rebellion quickly began to fizzle out as many of Nikita’s backers dropped their support for him. The pretender himself agreed to renounce his claim to the throne in 1549, bringing an end to his revolt.
Through the 1550s the old regent maintained his iron grip on court in Kiev while Tsar Lev entered into his teenage years. In the east, Poland continued its consolidation of power over the Tatar lands. Ipaosid was formally incorporated into the Tsardom, while between 1554 and 1555 the Khanate of Eymür was swept aside and vast territory between the Volga and Ural Mountains annexed by Poland and their vassals in the Yazi tribe. In Kiev, by the final years of the 1550s Lev was beginning to exert pressure of his own for his regent to relinquish power to him. Having ruled personally for a decade by this point, Oronartai was reluctant to step aside. Only his death in 1559, aged 74, brought an end to his reign as regent. Power in Poland had now, finally, passed on to a new generation and Tsar Lev III assumed the same all-powerful role as his predecessors.
On Poland’s far eastern frontier, events outside of Kiev’s control were leading the Tsardom towards a conflict with a distant foe. The rapid expansion of Polish rule in the east had allowed Russian explorers, merchants and buccaneers access to a whole new world. A number of expeditions had been launched into the lands east of the Urals, which lay under the rule of the Mongol Empire, mostly making use of Siberia’s great river networks. The explorers were often armed and were aggressive with local. Seeing these groups as encroaching on their sovereignty, the Mongols cornered one such expedition travelling along the Ob River in 1558 and massacred it. This action provoked rage in Kiev and when the Mongol Khagan refused to provide compensation, and give access to Siberian trade to Russian merchants, Poland went to war. The Mongol Empire had been in terminal decline for a century by this point. Overstretched, near bankrupt and riven by internal conflict it could only muster around 10,000 men to fight the Poles – a force that was completely destroyed by the Poles at the Battle of Kypshak near the shores of the Aral Sea. All of Siberia lay open.
Conquest was not to be as easy as the Poles had hoped. The mighty Chinese Empire had close connections to Central Asia and was well aware of the encroachment of Poland into the region. To the Celestial Empire, a weak Mongol Khanate – a force they understood well after thousands of years of interaction – was far preferable to the unknown of a highly aggressive Polish state. The Chinese therefore chose to deploy a large army to Siberia to defend the Mongols’ western border and keep the Slavs west of the Urals. This set the scene for a remarkably clash between two empires and civilisations that had, to this point, never before confronted each other directly in all human history.