Part III: The Treaty of Stockholm and the foundation of a new state
For the next weeks both sides tried to take as much territory as possible to strengthen their position at the negotiation table. Skrzynecki continued the offensive in the northern theatre of operations, where he achieved considerable success in less as two weeks. Wilno fell to the Polish forces and they were now approaching Minsk. In the south, Polish generals fared less well as Russian troops managed to stop the Polish offensive and even started their own offensive. Jozef Sowinski desperately attempted to stop the Russian advance near Rowne, but the numerical superior Russians under Ivan Paskevich broke through the defensive lines and managed to inflict a heavy defeat upon Sowinski. The Polish breakthrough in the north prevent Paskevich to march into Congress Poland and to have any chance of ending the Russo-Polish War before the powers would meet in Stockholm.
Several delegates from Britain, France, Prussia, Austria, Russia and Poland opened the conference in Stockholm on the evening of 13 January 1833. Prince Adam Jerzy Czartoryski, heading the Polish delegation, wanted the reconstruction of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth – with British, French and Turkish support – which would be federated with the Czechs, Slovaks, Hungarians, Romanians and all South Slavs. He also perceived Prussia as a future threat to Poland and Europe and advocated the incorporation of Eastern Prussia into the newly emerged Polish state. Russia, Prussia and Austria openly discarded these demands as ‘utterly ridiculous’ and ‘a slap in the face of the great powers’. While Britain and France were not as negative as the rest, they rejected the possibility of the proposition of Czartoryski.
Prince Adam Jerzy Czartoryski
Days of negotiations took place between the delegations before a workable solution was proposed by the French. The French suggestion saw Poland receiving the areas of Samogitia, Lithuania, Grodno Governorate as well as the Klaipeda region from Prussia, to ensure Poland had a port. The Russians tried to haggle for less territorial changes, but seeing that it was impossible to keep the Polish state limited to Congress Poland, they reluctantly agreed but added that Russia had the right to station troops in all Polish territory, except Congress Poland. Austria and Poland signed a separate treaty, acknowledging the current borders between Poland and Austria, as well as guaranteeing the independence of the Free City of Krakow. With most territorial changes settled, except for the Klaipeda region, the negotiations now focused on the future of Poland.
The Polish Constitution of 1815 was restored in its original state and would become one of the most liberal in Europe, with Adam Czartoryski becoming its head of state. All the powers agreed to acknowledge the independent state, with Britain and France guaranteeing the independence of the newly formed state. Without access to the Baltic or Black Sea, Prussia and Russia were to guarantee Polish right of transit by rail or canal over their territory. The Treaty of Stockholm would also prohibit the Polish government to fund or in any other way support nationalistic uprisings in Austria, Prussia or Russia. After several weeks of negotiating between the powers, the Treaty of Stockholm was signed on 25 February 1833. The treaty was received with mixed feelings in Poland and Russia. Polish radicals believed that Czartoryski sacrificed too much of his aims to please the Russians and the other powers, and that the war had cost too much for so few. In Russia several radical groups held a slightly different view; they believed that if Russia would push for a longer war then the uprising would have been crushed eventually.
Polish troops under Emilia Plater returning home
When Czartoryski returned to Poland he was greeted with celebrations and hailed as the saviour of Poland. Upon his arrival festivities in his honour were held throughout the nation and the veterans of the war were treated as national heroes. Soon the euphoria died, as Poland now faced the task to reform the nation and survive between three hostile powers. The former revolutionary government was dismissed and new elections were held in accordance with the Constitution of 1815, meaning every one of 21 years and older could vote in the elections. The conservative faction won the first elections with a landslide victory and would push forward several reforms to modernize Poland. To stimulate better economical growth new administrative divisions were created with the freedom to set their own economical policies free from Warsaw. The pro military government partially demobilized the forces from the Russo-Polish War and a major reform of the army was pushed through. The size of the Polish standing army was reduced to 6 divisions, which were to be at half strength during peacetime. Almost every one in Poland feared a new partition by Austria, Russia and Prussia and the need for a rapid mobilization pool was obvious. The current facilities would allow the Polish Army to conscript a mere 10,000 men and were inadequate for the tasks ahead of them. With the foundation of new military training grounds and staff academies, the amount of troops available rose to 100,000.
A view of the Polish capital
An independent Poland saw an influx of Polish immigrants from neighbouring countries, as well as other oppressed minorities, mostly from Jewish decent. Most Polish immigrants were unskilled labourers and craftsmen, while others were entrepreneurs who wanted to make most of the economical freedom, which was granted in Poland. Within months after the war had ended, the Polish economy started to grow rapidly and the first railway in Eastern Europe was created between Warsaw and Siedlice. By the end of 1835 an estimated 500,000 new immigrants arrived in Poland and she now found herself facing a new era.
For the next weeks both sides tried to take as much territory as possible to strengthen their position at the negotiation table. Skrzynecki continued the offensive in the northern theatre of operations, where he achieved considerable success in less as two weeks. Wilno fell to the Polish forces and they were now approaching Minsk. In the south, Polish generals fared less well as Russian troops managed to stop the Polish offensive and even started their own offensive. Jozef Sowinski desperately attempted to stop the Russian advance near Rowne, but the numerical superior Russians under Ivan Paskevich broke through the defensive lines and managed to inflict a heavy defeat upon Sowinski. The Polish breakthrough in the north prevent Paskevich to march into Congress Poland and to have any chance of ending the Russo-Polish War before the powers would meet in Stockholm.
Several delegates from Britain, France, Prussia, Austria, Russia and Poland opened the conference in Stockholm on the evening of 13 January 1833. Prince Adam Jerzy Czartoryski, heading the Polish delegation, wanted the reconstruction of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth – with British, French and Turkish support – which would be federated with the Czechs, Slovaks, Hungarians, Romanians and all South Slavs. He also perceived Prussia as a future threat to Poland and Europe and advocated the incorporation of Eastern Prussia into the newly emerged Polish state. Russia, Prussia and Austria openly discarded these demands as ‘utterly ridiculous’ and ‘a slap in the face of the great powers’. While Britain and France were not as negative as the rest, they rejected the possibility of the proposition of Czartoryski.
Prince Adam Jerzy Czartoryski
Days of negotiations took place between the delegations before a workable solution was proposed by the French. The French suggestion saw Poland receiving the areas of Samogitia, Lithuania, Grodno Governorate as well as the Klaipeda region from Prussia, to ensure Poland had a port. The Russians tried to haggle for less territorial changes, but seeing that it was impossible to keep the Polish state limited to Congress Poland, they reluctantly agreed but added that Russia had the right to station troops in all Polish territory, except Congress Poland. Austria and Poland signed a separate treaty, acknowledging the current borders between Poland and Austria, as well as guaranteeing the independence of the Free City of Krakow. With most territorial changes settled, except for the Klaipeda region, the negotiations now focused on the future of Poland.
The Polish Constitution of 1815 was restored in its original state and would become one of the most liberal in Europe, with Adam Czartoryski becoming its head of state. All the powers agreed to acknowledge the independent state, with Britain and France guaranteeing the independence of the newly formed state. Without access to the Baltic or Black Sea, Prussia and Russia were to guarantee Polish right of transit by rail or canal over their territory. The Treaty of Stockholm would also prohibit the Polish government to fund or in any other way support nationalistic uprisings in Austria, Prussia or Russia. After several weeks of negotiating between the powers, the Treaty of Stockholm was signed on 25 February 1833. The treaty was received with mixed feelings in Poland and Russia. Polish radicals believed that Czartoryski sacrificed too much of his aims to please the Russians and the other powers, and that the war had cost too much for so few. In Russia several radical groups held a slightly different view; they believed that if Russia would push for a longer war then the uprising would have been crushed eventually.
Polish troops under Emilia Plater returning home
When Czartoryski returned to Poland he was greeted with celebrations and hailed as the saviour of Poland. Upon his arrival festivities in his honour were held throughout the nation and the veterans of the war were treated as national heroes. Soon the euphoria died, as Poland now faced the task to reform the nation and survive between three hostile powers. The former revolutionary government was dismissed and new elections were held in accordance with the Constitution of 1815, meaning every one of 21 years and older could vote in the elections. The conservative faction won the first elections with a landslide victory and would push forward several reforms to modernize Poland. To stimulate better economical growth new administrative divisions were created with the freedom to set their own economical policies free from Warsaw. The pro military government partially demobilized the forces from the Russo-Polish War and a major reform of the army was pushed through. The size of the Polish standing army was reduced to 6 divisions, which were to be at half strength during peacetime. Almost every one in Poland feared a new partition by Austria, Russia and Prussia and the need for a rapid mobilization pool was obvious. The current facilities would allow the Polish Army to conscript a mere 10,000 men and were inadequate for the tasks ahead of them. With the foundation of new military training grounds and staff academies, the amount of troops available rose to 100,000.
A view of the Polish capital
An independent Poland saw an influx of Polish immigrants from neighbouring countries, as well as other oppressed minorities, mostly from Jewish decent. Most Polish immigrants were unskilled labourers and craftsmen, while others were entrepreneurs who wanted to make most of the economical freedom, which was granted in Poland. Within months after the war had ended, the Polish economy started to grow rapidly and the first railway in Eastern Europe was created between Warsaw and Siedlice. By the end of 1835 an estimated 500,000 new immigrants arrived in Poland and she now found herself facing a new era.
