Interlude Two: From W. FitzRoy’s Bohemond. Giant Among Men.
The following is an unabridged excerpt from William FitzRoy. Bohemond. Giant Among Men. London 1920
. The present editor feels that it is his duty to remind the gentle reader that Sir William FitzRoy was himself the scion of an English noble family tracing its roots back to the Norman conquerors and thus highly prejudiced in favour of the subject of his disquisition. His book does moreover still stand in the tradition of 19th century historiography and does thus tend to take its sources at face value, resorting to merest hints of the modern scholarly discipline of source criticism only where unfavourable accounts of Bohemond are extant. Caveat emptor.
A minor occurrence in the second half of 1104 can probably also be counted among the aftermath or immediate repercussions of the war of annexation against the remnants of the Emirate of Cyrenaika. We have related above how Prince Herman de Hauteville has in the course of this campaign been gravely wounded by an assassin who had in all probability been sent by his second cousin Count Henry of Lecce, acting as regent for his nephew, young Duke Massimo of Calabria. Not long after the end of the war, an attempt was now made to end the life of Duke Massimo, at that time a boy no older than ten years, by use of poison. The cowardly attempt failed, and no culprit was ever found or named, even though rumors did abound, varyingly suspecting either the King, Prince Herman, or the boy’s uncle and regent himself responsible. We will not concern us with idle speculations, it shall merely have to suffice to say that Count Henry stood to gain nothing whatsoever from his ward’s demise and that it would be completely out of character for Bohemond to stoop to such low means as murder, so that these two can be safely discounted as instigators of the assault.
Of more consequence than the attempt on the life on Duke Massimo was the reorganisation of his realm Bohemond conducted after the war against Cyrenaika. The King’s measures to this end carried forward the rise of the Frankish de Macon family who had proven so instrumental in thwarting the traitors at the ‘Treason of Monreale’. Soon after this event, the family’s patriarch Guy had been made a councillor of the King (see above p. 362) and two of his sons had been elevated into influential offices as well. Géraud had been made archbishop of Siracusa, and Raoul marshal of the realm. Both young de Macons had proven their worth almost immediately. Géraud had instituted final sweeps of his diocese and closed down the last remaining places of Orthodox Christian worship, bringing Sicily finally and firmly into the fold of Catholicism, and Raoul had conducted his commands against the Cyrenaikans to the fullest satisfaction of the King. Sometime early in the year of 1105 AD, the de Macons did reap yet another reward for their outstanding services to the crown when the family head Guy was entrusted with the African county of Bizerte.
But it was not this enfiefment that had momentous consequences for the Norman realm, but another one carried out at about the same time, not long after Christmas 1104. The King’s second son Gausbert had also accompanied Bohemond on the campaign into Africa, and the youth had there distinguished himself both by cunning and by prowess in battle and won the favour of his father. While the campaign had not yet been concluded, Bohemond had already sent to Greece, to Ioannes Syraneres, lord of Adrianopolis and a powerful figure at the court of Emperor Kyrilios, to win the Byzantine’s daughter’s hand in marriage for Gausbert. Prince Ioannes consented to the marriage of Sophia, one of the famed beauties of the age, to King Bohemond’s son, and sent her to Palermo, where the matrimony was solemnized around Christmas 1104.
Very soon after the marriage, probably at the same occasion that he granted Bizerte to Guy de Macon, Bohemond did also elevate Gausbert and provide him with suitable holdings to keep his wife in a style befitting a daughter-in-law of his. No sooner than the Mediterranean reopened again for shipping, Bohemond stripped his unworthy brother of the county of Benghazi and conferred it upon Gausbert, together with the counties of Cyrenaica and Tobruk and the duchy of Cyrenaica, which included overlordship over Senoussi. With a single stroke, Gausbert was thus placed among the very greatest lords of the realm.
The elevation of Gausbert did eventually prompt the second and final rift between Bohemond and his ungrateful eldest son Herman, but before we turn our attention to these events we need to cast a look over the borders of the Norman realm and at the political developments in the Muslim world, developments that did not bode well for Europe. The civil war in Egypt and the victory of Mukhtar have already been mentioned (see above p. 359), but we have not yet allowed for the repercussions this war had had upon Egypt’s neighbours and ultimately Byzantium.
In 1104, the Seljuk Turks were still beng ruled by aged Malik Sha, that great and terrible sultan whose name struck fear into the hearts of Cristians and heathens alike from Britain to India and beyond. Long had Malik Shah desired to extend his power onto the lovely shores of the Mediterranean, but the double threat of the Byzantine and Fatimid empires had stayed his hand. Now, with his southern flak secured by the Fatimids being weakened by the rebellions in Judea and Arabia and temporarily neutralized by the civil war between young Sabah and the pretender Mukhtar, Malik Shah lost no time. Early in 1104 he mobilized his armies and struck out west, towards Antioch, into Byzantine territory. The Greeks were ill prepared for such a huge assault, and their Syrian holdings were quickly reduced to the city of Antioch herself, besieged by Malik Shah. Emperor Kyrilios in person assembled and led a powerful army to Antioch’s relief while at the same time ordering an assault into Turkish occupied Armenia, hoping to gain the support of the local Christians and to force Malik Shah to react to this invasion and divert some of his forces away from beset Antioch.
Kyrilios plan failed completely. Dissent among the commanders of the Armenian expedition force decreased its effectiveness and eventually led to its complete annihilation, opening up north-central Asia Minor to a devastating Turkish counterattack, and the Emperor’s own army made too slow progress to relieve Antioch in time. On November 4th 1104, after a gruelling siege of six months, the old and famed Syrian metropolis of Antioch did pass out of Christian hands and fall to the Turk. Kyrilios wintered in Cilicia, only three hundred miles from Malik Shah in Antioch, and did launch his offensive into Syria in early 1105. On April 26th 1105, at a place halfway between Aleppo and Antioch called Burzuq, he suffered a clear defeat by the hand of Malik Shah and was subsequently forced to withdraw into Cilicia. With Malik Shah hot in his pursuits and a second Turkish army having advanced far along the coast of the Black Sea towards Sinope and laying siege to the great town, Kyrilios had no option but to come to terms with the Turkish Sultan and accept the loss of his eastern possessions. From now on, Turkish galleys would ply the blue waters of the Mediterranean.
The Byzantine Empire by mid-1105,
and the territorial losses suffered in the war against Malik Shah.
But Christianity was on the retreat not only in the East, but also in the West, and 1105 was a black year for Spain as well. For over a decade, King Estebe’s Castilians had seen ceaseless warfare against the Muslims of Sevilla. Once, Estebe had foolishly failed to come to the aid of Catalonia when it was being beset by Hussayn of Sevilla and had stood by idly while the wily Arab extended his power over Iberia ever more, and now he was feeling this power himself. For a decade castle after castle and town after town had fallen to Hussayn, until, finally, on June 16th 1105, Soria, the very last town under Castilian control, fell to Sevilla as well. Like Catalonia a dozen years earlier, the kingdom of Castille had thus ceased to exist. The only Christian realm remaining on Iberian soil was now Portugal, tiny and impoverished, its excommunicated monarch Henrique a powerless first among squabbling nobles.
The Iberian peninsula and the western Mediterranean by mid-1105,
after the collapse of the Castilian state.
While Christendom was beset on both ends of the Christian world, the papacy was powerless. A stroke had killed Pope Honorius II on February 16th 1105, and the new Pope’s authority was questioned. Under the impression of the evil tidings arriving from East and West, Archbishop Francesco of Viterbo had maneuvered to be very quickly, already on February 22nd, elected as new Pope; he assumed the regnal name of Silvester IV, after that first Silvester who had during Emperor Constantine’s days seen the final solemnization of Christian faith throughout the Roman Empire.
Pope Silvester was being opposed and his authority questioned from the first day of his papacy. The conclave that had hastily elected him had failed to meet the quorum of attendants required by canonical law and the election could thus from a strictly legal viewpoint be regarded void. On March 30th, a second conclave fulfilling the legal requirements convened at Florence, declared Silvester IV deposed and elected Archbishop Giovanni of Ostrava to the Holy See.
The church was thus torn between two popes. Giovanni, who assumed the regnal name of Clement III, ruled from Florence and had the support of the majority of the bishops, but Silvester held Rome. This state of affairs continued until September 26th 1106, when Silvester IV did finally pass away. In view of the Christians being beset by Muslims in East and West, those bishops who had professed adherence to Silvester did desist from electing a new pope but did instead acknowledge Clement III. On November 7th 1106, Clement was thus finally able to enter Rome and celebrate high mass at St. Peter. Once fimly in control of the church, Clement III should go on to become one of the more dynamic occupants of the Holy See, the instigator of the luckless and largely ignored First Crusade, and the most viscious and determined enemy of Bohemond and the Normans to so far sit the throne of St. Peter.
Here, FitzRoy inserts several paragraphs on the papacy of Clement III before returning to the internal politics of the Norman kingdom after the enfiefment of Prince Gausbert. At this junction we shall for now leave his account and return to the story.