The War of the Third Coalition - German-Italian Campaign 1805
On 23rd March 1805, Napoleon met with his Generals to make a decision that would change Europe forever. Deciding to abandon plans for a cross channel invasion for now, they ordered the Grand Armee to break camp and march to the East, in order to defeat the coalition powers which had recently joined the British. In high spirits, the formations left Bolougne, with banners raised high and bands playing the songs of war. Upon leaving Bolougne, the Armee split into 3 different forces. The Grand Armee under Napoleon, 200,000 strong and made up of 7 corps marched for Munich, to reinforce France's German allies. The Armee de Hanovre under Bessieres, the weakest force, was to march, join up with existing occupation forces and secure Hanover from coalition attack, but would have only 50,000 men to accomplish this task with. Meanwhile, Massena would lead the 100,000 strong Armée d'Italie in a defensive campaign aimed at keeping the Austrians out the Italian Republic.
1. Elements of the Grand Armee on inspection at the Bolougne Camp.
The French were not the only nation on the march however. In the East, the Russian behemoth was stirring into life, and upon receiving news of the Grand Armee's march, Tsar Alexander immediately began to plan. After long deliberation that lasted until 4am, the Tsar and his Generals decided to send 300,000 men to reinforce Austria and Prussia. The first force, made up of 150,000 men under Kutuzov, would march to Berlin, and there join with Prussian forces. The second, under Bagration and of equal size to the first, would march to meet the Austrian forces in Bohemia. Austria and Prussia were also making plans, with Prussia deciding on a very conservative strategy, which proposed withdrawing the vast majority of Prussian strength to Berlin, in order to meet up with Russian forces arriving from the East. The Austrians also chose a conservative strategy, electing to send 100,000 men under Radetzky to cover Italy, another 175,000 under Archduke Ferdinand to cover Bohemia and join with Russian reinforcements, and another 150,000, under Archduke Charles, their finest commander, to guard the approach to Vienna.
The allies of France were also planning however, with the Swiss adopting a strategy of defence along their Eastern border, utilising the Alps as a natural defensive position. The Bavarians meanwhile, had been the boldest of all the powers, and with the other French allies, planned to make bold strikes towards Innsbruck and against Austrian allies bordering their territory.
With the plans made, the various Armies began to move across Europe. The Bavarians struck first, holding a reserve of 12,500 men at home, whilst sending their remaining forces onto the offensive. Accompanied by forces from Wurttemburg and Baden, they seized various Austrian aligned territories bordering them with few losses of their own. Austrian troops had all been withdrawn from the area, and those local forces that remained were hopelessly outnumbered, outdated and under supplied. With their backs secured, the Bavarians turned their attention to the Tirol, leading a 20,000 strong German force into the area. Under the command of Ludwig, the Bavarian Elector's first son and heir, they marched cautiously at first, expecting strong Austrian resistance. They found none however, and apart from light harrying from local militia forces, hastily raised and ill equipped, they had a relatively untroubled advance. Leaving garrisons in key towns along the way, they reached Innsbruck on the 1st of May, barely a month since they started their cautious advance from Munich. Seizing control of the city, they marched through the streets with pride and raised their flags over the Castle. [-500 Conscripts from Bavaria, Tirol under Bavarian control, Several HRE minors bordering South German states occupied, Pro-Austrian militia operating in Tirol]
2. Engraving of the Schloss Ambras, the new Headquarters of the German forces in the Tirol.
Whilst this was happening, the 50,000 strong force under Bessieres had arrived in Hanover, where they began to dig in and fortify key towns, expecting an imminent Prussian attack. None came however, and apart from the odd cavalry skirmish between border patrols and scouts, little action occurred in this sector.
In Northern Italy however, the war was very real. With Austrian forces arriving well before the French, they set about the task of destroying the local Italian forces who supported the French. Although they vastly outnumbered the local Italian forces, the Austrians could never seem to bring them to battle, fighting only skirmishes against cavalry patrols and rearguards. Unknown to them, the Italian forces were benefiting from an efficient system of local civilian informers and scouts, who were giving them the information they needed to avoid battle until French reinforcements arrived.
It was July before the 130,000 strong Franco-Italian and 100,000 strong Austrian forces finally met in a real battle. Upon hearing of the arrival of French forces, General Radetzky ordered his army to retreat, in order to fight a defensive war around the area of Venice-Trent. General Massena was also under orders to pursue a defensive policy, also along the Austrian-Italian border. Both sides recognised the importance of the intersection Adige and Alpone rivers, for it was here that Italian territory was closest to the river, which would have to be crossed before any invasion could gain momentum. The French were determined to keep open this important salient, to facilitate future offensives into Austrian Italy, the Austrians opposing them were set on securing this weakness in their lines, and driving the French away from the river. In late July, as both sides rushed to secure the crossings at Arcole and Ronco, the stage was set for the opening battle of the Italian campaign, the Second Battle of Arcole.
The first engagement of the battle took place at 9am between Hungarian and Italian Hussars, both of which were leading their armies advance. The Austrians, crossing the Alpone at Arcole were intent on capturing the bridge at Ronco and setting up a defence there, to stop any French crossings, the French had the opposite goal, having crossed the Adige at Ronco. After the vanguard cavalry units clashed, both sides fell back to set up their battle lines, with the better drilled French accomplishing this much faster than the Austrians, and subsequently beginning their advance sooner than that of the Austrians. Both sides met about 2/3rds of the way from Ronco to Arcole, and a fierce battle began. Initially, the French made good progress as a half hour artillery bombardment by every gun they could muster softened up Austrian positions for a infantry assault. The Austrians soon began to fight back with an uncommon zeal however, and by 2pm, the French advance had been brought to a standstill, with heavy losses on both sides and a significant dent hammered into the Austrian right flank.
Now, General Radetzky went onto the counterattack, ordering forward his heavy cavalry as a battering ram to punch through the bloodied French left. Supported by the fire of the Austrian guns and followed by a slow moving infantry advance, the Austrian cavalry thundered forward over the dusty ground. Taking fire from the French artillery, they swept forward towards the French infantry. Tired and low on supplies from their attack, the French infantry hurried to form squares against the cavalry attack. Under heavy Austrian bombardment, the squares suffered horrific casualties, and several were broken by Austrian cavalry, due to artillery fire or mistimed volleys from the infantry. Massena however, was not going to let his left be broken so easily, and order forward his heavy cavalry in response to the Austrian assault. He also ordered the bulk of his light cavalry over to his left, and gave them orders to flank the Austrian right and cut off the Austrian heavy cavalry from their lines.
Moving swiftly, the French cavalry quickly equalised the situation on their left, and forced the Austrian counterattack to a halt. Then mounting a counterattack of their own, they drove the Austrians back, past the maximum extent of the previous French advance and onwards, skewing the Austrian line severely. Seeing the danger, Radetzky ordered an immediate rearguard action whilst the bulk of his forces retreated to regroup at Arcole. The rearguard, made up mainly of Czech and Croatian forces managed to hold long enough to allow the Austrian retreat, though they took severe casualties and resorted to using a makeshift grapeshot assembled from whatever sharp objects could be found on the battlefield. By 5pm, the
Austrian rearguard had broken, and the French advance continued. By now, both sides were down to their last reserves and were suffering from a days intense battle.
3. Painting of the battle from the Adige river, near Ronco. Note the newly constructed Pontoon bridge which the Frano-Italian force is crossing over.
Massena, keen to break through and seize the town ordered his men forward in one final attack, intent on breaking the Austrian centre in a huge concentrated push. The Austrian infantry, some dead on their feet, held as best they could, but were driven back and back until they reached the banks of the river. There, amongst the trees and brush they made their stand, firing volley after volley into the advancing French, before mounting a final bayonet charge with their last remaining energy. Joined by the remaining cavalry, they entered into brutal hand to hand fighting, as artillery fire screamed overhead and howitzer shells exploded amongst the whirling melee. Very few of those who entered the melee had any idea of how the battle was progressing, they focused only on surviving. From a higher perspective however, things were clearer. Massena, realising that his tired soldiers had little chance of success, ordered a retreat back towards Ronco, and Radetzky, himself wounded in the leg by a piece of shrapnel, was happy to let Massena go.
After a bitter and bloody days fighting, the result was a draw. The French and Italians, in possession of Ronco, had taken slightly higher casualties, but neither side could really claim a victory. Throughout the night, the Sappers and Pioneers worked to set up additional Pontoon bridges across the rivers, and to fortify buildings in the towns for coming battles. However, neither side had the strength nor stomach for a further clash, both thinking their strength inadequate for a further engagement. Therefore, both sat tight in their positions, sending out scouts to check on enemy movements and try and find an advantage they could use to force a victory over the other. [-5,000 Regulars from France, -5,000 Conscripts from France, -7,500 Regulars from Austria]
4. Painting of Italian troops in Ronco after the battle.
Meanwhile, in Germany, the main area of action so far in the war, the largest battle of the year was about to be fought. At Linz, the Austrian commander, Archduke Charles, lacked confidence in his forces. Whilst he had no precise information, he was sure the Franco-German force in Munich was bigger than his own, and he was unsure if his reforms to the army would be enough to stop the French forces. In Munich, Napoleon was also considering the situation. The Bavarian advance into the Tirol had secured his southern flank, but the presence of Austrian and Russian troops in Bohemia worried him. Although both sides initially wished to avoid engagement, circumstances were to force the hand of both sides.
At dawn on the 17th of September, 1805, an Austrian and a Bavarian border patrol clashed near the town of Passau. The Austrian patrol, emerging from some woods, was sighted by the Bavarians who were resting along a low stone wall as the edge of a field. Once fired upon, the Austrians quickly dismounted and took cover, returning fire and moving around as they did so, in an attempt to fool the Bavarians into thinking they were a larger force. The ploy worked, but the Austrian's desired effect was not the outcome. Instead, the Bavarians continued to fight back, and sent riders to summon help against what they believed to be a far larger Austrian force. As more Bavarian forces arrived, the Austrians decided to take a similar course of action, and soon both sides had brought several regiments into play. As more forces arrived, successive commanders sent for more and more reinforcements. By nightfall on the 17th, what had begun as a skirmish between 2 patrols had escalated into a battle between Corps sized forces, with the main strength of both sides on its way to the battle. Ney, commanding the French corps at the van of the armies advance, had arrived as night was falling, and had taken command of the battle. The Austrian corps commander, General Mack, who had arrived at roughly the same time, was also forming the van of the advance, and also took command.
By dawn on the 18th, the battle was no longer a Corps level affair, Napoleon and Archduke Charles having arrived after a forced march through the night with the bulk of their forces. The Austrians, with a shorter march and having received the call for reinforcements sooner had their entire strength, 155,000 men, 5,000 of them drawn from minor German states loyal to Austria, at the battlefield by dawn. The French were outnumbered, at 150,000 men, 10,000 of them Bavarians. However, the corps of Bernadotte and Davout were still on the march, numbering 60,000 Frenchmen and 2,500 German allies. These forces were still a way from the battle, having been delayed in departing Munich, and were unlikely to arrive until the early afternoon even if they force marched.
5. Positions at dawn on the 18th.
As the battle on the 18th commenced, the Austrian position looked strong. Archduke Charles had set up a formidable defensive line, running in front of the town of Passau and down to Neuberg and Wernstein am Inn. His artillery was positioned evenly along the line, and his cavalry was held in reserve, along with several infantry regiments. Furthermore, he kept several formations in reserve across the river, to guard against any threat to his retreat. His plan was to use the close terrain to his advantage, denying Napoleon and the French the room for the style of manoeuvre warfare they excelled in. His plan was risky however, as with his back to the river, any retreat would be tricky.
At 8:30am, the French began their first attack with an hour long bombardment of the Neuberg-Wernstein area, on the Austrian extreme left, followed by the advance of 20,000 infantrymen against the area, in an effort to force the Austrians away from this crossing, push across the river and block off their retreat, completing the encirclement and destruction of the Austrian forces. Although bloodied by the artillery fire, the Austrian forces held their ground against the French advance, utilising the buildings of the town and surrounding farms as strongpoints against the advance. The French had severe trouble assaulting these, and they severely disrupted the advance, forcing the French to bring up cannon to fire at point blank range into the structures, clearing them one by one. Progress was slow, and at 1pm, 3 and a half hours after the attack had begun, the French were still deadlocked in tough fighting in the village.
Meanwhile, the French had launched a second attack upon the Austrian right, crossing the Danube and flanking the Austrian lines, before returning to cross the Danube into the town of Passau itself. Although this attack would mean defeat for the Austrians if it succeeded, Archduke Charles was confident in the ability of his men to hold their ground, advantaged as they were by the buildings of the town and the low number of bridges the French could cross. This attack also became bogged down, with Dieu Soult, leading the corps making the attack, realising the hopelessness of the situation and pulling back to the Northern bank, ordering his guns to bombard the town.
6. Positions at 1pm.
With one French attack bogged down and another beaten back, the Austrian situation at 2pm looked good. And Archduke Charles was beginning to wonder if he had perhaps been a bit too pessimistic about the value of his reforms. Napoleon meanwhile, was looking for some way to break through. After some deliberation, he decided on an attack in the Eichet-Neustift area of the battlefield, aiming to push Ney's corps and his Bavarian allies through the area, and into Passau, in order to support Dieu Soult's attack from the North, and thereby trap the bulk of the Austrian army on the West bank. Going forward at 2:30pm, the French and Bavarian forces initially made good progress, and managed to break through to the outskirts of Passau, where they were met by several battalions of grenadiers, which the Archduke had ordered be condensed into a single reserve formation to stop any breakthrough. With these new forces in play, the Austrians fought back with determination, and managed to slow the French advance, then halt it by 4pm, although both sides suffered high losses.
By this time, Napoleon was cursing Davout and Bernadotte with every possible expletive he knew, frustrated as he was at their late arrival. Napoleon and Charles both knew that the arrival of extra French forces would tip the balance of the battle, from what was currently a fairly even affair, to one in French favour. Although Charles scouts had reported French troops marching to battle, he had no received word of the reinforcements positions since breakfast. Still, he counted on having an ample warning of the arrival of these forces, to assess the situation and retreat if he felt necessary, after what would have been a victory of sorts.
7. Positions at 4pm.
By 5pm, Napoleon had given up hope of the arrival of his reinforcements before it was too late in the day to be decisive, and had instead decided to throw in all his forces in a final attack. Regrouping his troops, he ordered Ney, Dieu Soult and the Bavarians to attack Passau, whilst the Guard was sent to reinforce the forces attacking the Neuberg-Wernstein area. Napoleon hoped that this push would cut off the Austrians from 3 of the 4 possible bridges they could retreat over, creating a bottleneck and allowing him to roll up the rest of the Austrian army, using Murat's cavalry reserve, with comparative ease.
At 5:30, the Guard arrived at Neuberg-Wernstein and quickly tipped the battle in the favour of France. Seizing the bridge from the tired Austrians, the Guard drove forwards, their banners fluttering in the wind and their eagles held high with pride. Archduke Charles, seeing the danger this posed to his forces, ordered forward his cavalry to counter the threat. Charging downhill towards the village and river, the cavalry were met by the Guard, who had formed squares. With the Old Guard in the front and artillery masterfully placed between the squares, the Guard quickly blunted the Austrian charge, firing perfectly timed volleys into the charging Cuirassiers and carving bloody holes in the ranks with canister and solid shot. With the Austrian cavalry defeated, the situation looked bleak, and with Passau under pressure Archduke Charles ordered the bulk of his troops back across the river, to set up a new defensive position and hold until nightfall. Although things had taken a turn for the worst, it was still possible that they might hold till nightfall and claim victory.
8. Positions at 6pm.
It was not to be however. With the Old Guard seizing breaking the Austrian left and the right flank at Passau caving in, Davout's and Bernadotte's corps finally, arrived, but not in the expected place. Due to the removal of a roadsign by a pro-Austrian citizen, the French reinforcements had taken a wrong turn whilst marching to the battle. Unfortunately for the Austrians, this wrong turn led them to the South, where they crossed the river and then, realising their error, marched North, arriving just as the Archduke ordered the retreat to the far bank.
With his position now hopeless, against overwhelming French numbers and with his left flank completely broken, the Archduke ordered an immediate retreat to Linz, whilst he oversaw the rearguard. Despite his efforts, the Austrians could not hold back the threat to their left, and the combined weight of the Guard, Davout's, Bernadotte's and Murat's corps, which had now moved up to reinforce, proved too much for any rearguard. Breaking through to the Danube, they secured the crossings which the bulk of the Austrian army needed to survive. With little hope of victory, General Mack, commander of the Austrian forces on the West bank, decided to surrender. As night fell, Archduke Charles, exhausted from his efforts to save his army, joined what remained of his force and returned to Linz, leaving the battlefield of Passau behind him. [-7,000 Regulars from France, -10,000 Conscripts from France, -3,000 Regulars from Bavaria, -95,000 Regulars from Austria]
9. Positions at the conclusion of the battle, nightfall.
As news of this great victory reached home, the nations opinions of their leaders changed accordingly. In France, Napoleon was hailed as a hero, who had crushed the Austrians in a great victory. Archduke Charles, although he had fought well and only lost due to a freak occurrence, was subject to much disapproval, as was the Austrian Government. General Mack, who had surrendered rather than fight on, was regarded as little better than a traitor by many. As Winter 1805 began, the French advanced and secured Linz, whilst Archduke Charles and the remains of his army settled into Vienna. Both sides however, had moved a substantial amount of forces from their homeland, and only time would tell what impact this would have on public order. [+1 Stability to France, -2 Stability from Austria]