Major Events of 1791
Europe
The execution of the King of France and the pronouncement of the French Republic has the other European countries spooked. Even in Great Britain, where there are some sympathies towards the less radical aspects of the revolution, the government takes active steps to discourage revolutionary ideas. The Parliament passed the Seditious Meetings Act and the Combinations Act, restricting the rights of assembly and the formation of political organizations. There is essentially no public backlash against the acts, and although they do restrict public participation in civic matters slightly, the effect is rather small.
In preparation for an expanding role in the war against France, the British army is significantly expanded in size. A dozen new infantry regiments are joined by eight new cavalry regiments and twenty new artillery batteries. There are some concerns about the growing expenses associated with the war – the British government continues to borrow at alarming rates – but they are pushed aside for now. It is worth remembering, however, that the revolution in France started in part due to the inability of the government to pay its debts.
In France the economic situation is deteriorating somewhat rapidly. The government continues to be funded in large part by money and property that is seized from the nobility and the church, but without yet another round of confiscations the ability of the government to pay all of its bills next year looks bleak. Furthermore, the war in the northwest has hit the supply of bread and other foodstuffs hard, and prices are rising fast. Many poor, especially in Paris, are unable to afford even basic provisions. At the moment their anger is directed against the royalists, the foreign invaders, and the fictional hoarders of foodstuffs, but it could turn against the National Convention at any moment.
In the Netherlands the reaction to the revolution in France takes the form of centralization and consolidation of government. The autonomous states that used to make up the country are reduced to provinces, and a bi-cameral Parliament is established to represent the entire country. The Stadholder formally becomes Prince of the Netherlands, a position he has already held in all but name. Although the reforms are supported by the Orangists, they are opposed by the patriots, who themselves are emboldened by the events in France. There are plots afoot to bring the same kind of revolution that happened in France to the Netherlands.
Across the border from the Netherlands, Charles Theodore assumes his role as King of Burgundy. The major reforms of the Holy Roman Empire are only now beginning to be digested by all of the rulers of Germany. With everyone’s attention focused on France, these changes are likely to go unopposed, although many are uneasy with the disregard for historic tradition that the Emperor has shown. In Bavaria, now part of the Emperor’s realm, most people welcome the change, expecting the duchy to prosper as a result of a closer connection to Austria, and happy to be rid of Charles Theodore who was, at best ,indifferent to the situation there.
Emperor Leopold II, worried about the disturbance in Bohemia, and fearful that any little spark may ignite a revolution akin to the one in France, gives in to the demands of the Czech middle class. German troops are removed from Prague, and the re-institution of serfdom is revoked. The Emperor is celebrated in the city for his wisdom and his compassion. Those who believe that the country should evolve towards a more liberal arrangement believe, perhaps falsely, that Leopold may listen to them and implement their ideas, of only they make themselves heard. There is a renewed vigor in public discussions of politics, but very little of it is threatening in any way to the Emperor and the Empire. The acquisition of Bavaria is seen favorably among many of the Emperor’s subjects, and most ideas that are circulating around the Empire focus on the bright future that is ahead.
In Naples the events in France prompt a palace coup against the ruling faction. The Queen and her favorite, John Acton, have until now charted a pro-British course, and have been pushing for Naples to join the anti-French coalition. Frustrated by the possibility of war, Admiral Francesco Caracciolo and Fabrizio Cardinal Ruffo convince the King to remove Acton from power and replace him with Ruffo. While the setback to the Queen’s faction is unlikely to be permanent, and the King is likely to remain somewhat aloof of the Neapolitan politics, the new faction has a chance to try to solidify power and take the country in a different direction.
Venice is one place where the reaction to the French revolution takes a different course. Fearful of the possible violence that a confrontation with the lower classes would bring, the reformists who have taken power in Venice look for a compromise. The eventual solution is to extend the electoral franchise to the lower classes, making Venice one of the most democratic countries on the continent, and likely in the world. For the moment this compromise appears to have cooled tempers and it offers a way forward for the country, but the real test of it will come in the next year, when elections will have to be held.
Although Spain is only nominally involved in the war in France, the government uses this as an excuse to temporarily re-direct tithe money from the church to the state. Given the anti-clerical nature of the revolution in France there is considerable support for the proposal, even among the clergy. The government is not particularly effective at collecting the money, as it is not effective at collecting most taxes, but whatever is collected in the end contributes to the relatively stable state of the Spanish finances.
In an attempt to build on the prior reforms (some of which did not turn out so well), the Spanish government moves to liberalize trade in the country. Prior to the reform, colonial and some foreign trade could only pass through certain ports and was subject to a myriad of other restrictions. The opening of additional ports to trade helps restore much of the colonial mercantile traffic that was harmed by earlier changes. In addition, the fewer restrictions on other foreign trade help boost the amount of goods that flow in and out of Spain. In turn, the greater flow of trade helps generate even more revenue for the Spanish government.
Seeking additional revenue, the government of Denmark raises the rates charged for the sound dues on all countries except Russia and Great Britain. Sweden, in particular, is targeted, with Danish ships aggressively stopping merchant ships flying under the Swedish flag. The additional revenue for the Danes is not as much as could have been hoped (Russia and Great Britain make up the bulk of traffic), but the higher tolls do have a serious negative effect on Swedish trade, and in particular on Swedish manufacturing, which suddenly faces a significant hurdle to its development.
In Poland the Great Sejm appears set to adopt the provisions of the new Polish Constitution that creates a royal council to aid in governing the country. At the last moment, opposition to the idea unexpectedly scuttles it, and the vote fails. Dismayed by this outcome, the progressive reformers seek a way forward, and come up with what they believe to be a clever ruse – they will hold a secret meeting while many members of the opposition are away, and pass the provisions.
The underhanded maneuver provokes outrage across the country, including among the moderate supporters of the Sejm. Stanisław Szczęsny Potocki and other conservative nobles form the Targowica Confederation in opposition to the government, which attracts wide support across the country. Many of the patriotic officers in the new Polish army pledge their support to the confederation, appalled at the attempted subversion of the Sejm by the reformers. Potocki writes to Empress Catherine of Russia, imploring her to intervene on behalf of the Polish people, and the Empress graciously agrees.
The Russian intervention is clearly planned long in advance, and would go ahead regardless of the events at the Sejm. However, in the current situation, Catherine and the Russians are seen as benevolent liberators from a corrupt regime. With the Polish army in complete disarray as a result of defections in the officers’ corps, the invading Russian forces face essentially no opposition. Generals Suvorov, Rumyantsev, and Repnin, together with the forces of the Targowica Confederation secure the country in a matter of two months. King Stanisław August Poniatowski accepts the demands of the confederation after Russian troops enter Krakow, although it is clear that Yakov Ivanovich Bulgakov, Empress Catherine’s man in Warsaw, is the one calling the shots in Poland.
The Ottoman Sultan, keenly aware of the need to reform the Ottoman state, holds meetings with statesmen, notables, and foreign dignitaries employed by the Porte. He has visions for grand administrative and military reforms that will rejuvenate an empire that has been on the decline for over a century. The first of the steps in this direction, however, is rather minor. The Sultan sets up the New Revenues Treasury, responsible for retaining land that would previously be rented out in the feudal timariote system. As the land is recovered only when its current holders die, the process is slow, and will take decades to make much of a difference to the current system of landownership, although it does bring some immediate cash to the Sultan’s coffers.
Americas
Ratification by the states of the first ten amendments to the United States Constitution is completed, creating the United States Bill of Rights.
The British and French dispatch expeditions to the Caribbean to secure some of the French overseas possessions. Both expeditions meet with only moderate degree of success, at best. The Spanish have no trouble securing the sparsely-populated island of Tobago, but run into a problem on Guadeloupe. The local royalists on Guadeloupe have maintained control of the island, and have turned it into the center of royalist control in the Caribbean. Although the French forces on the island are smaller than the Spanish expeditionary force, the Spanish are reluctant to attack the royalists, and the standoff sours relations between the two sides.
The British expedition runs into trouble on Saint-Domingue. The wealthy white plantation owners initially welcome the British, hoping to use this opportunity to gain independence from France. However, in August, François Dominique Toussaint-Louverture and Jean-Jacques Dessalines lead an uprising of slaves against the white owners and the British occupation. More and more slaves join the revolt, which quickly spirals out of control. The British do their best to defend the island, but they lose almost two thousand soldiers in skirmishes and battles with the slaves. Over the fall and winter months the slaves kill approximately five thousand whites on the island, burning plantations and destroying white settlements. By the end of the year the British and white settlers control only a few isolated areas of the colony, and the Philip Affleck, the commander of the British expedition, requests additional troops to try to pacify the island.
To deal with the uprising in Brazil, Portugal raises additional troops and sends them to reinforce the colonial forces in Brazil. Additional Spanish troops arrive in the colony as well, with the clear intention of putting an end to any independence and republican movements. The Portuguese and Spanish impose martial law in the coastal areas of Rio de Janeiro, and then march into Minas Gerais. The small rebel militia of a couple hundred untrained men scatters in the only battle that the European troops fight during the course of the year. The instigators of the revolt are arrested and tried for their actions.
Middle East and Africa
In another turn of events that get stranger and stranger, the Danish fleet in the Mediterranean reinstates its blockade of Tripoli. Together with hired Greek and Arab mercenaries the Danes then launch a naval invasion of Misrata, which the small complement of Danish marines manage to occupy temporarily. The two feuding clans of the city, the Muntasir and the Adgham unite to oppose the Danes, murdering dozens of marines in ambushes around the city. The entire enterprise costs the Danes significant lives and gold, without a clear goal or beneficial outcome.
While the Danes are busy in Misrata, the Ottomans arrive in Tripolitania to offer help to the Pasha against the Danes. If anything, the Ottoman intervention weakens the position of the Pasha, as a number of local Turkish officers see this as an opportunity to topple the overbearing Karamanli dynasty. Unfortunately for them, Ali I Pasha has ruled the country with an iron fist for nearly four decades and has secured the loyalty of all major factions. An Ottoman officer named Ali Benghul, who was plotting against the Pasha is captured and executed. After putting down the impromptu insurrection, the Pasha begins preparing an expedition to oust the Danes with Ottoman help.
Asia and Oceania
In a strange turn of events that characterize tribal politics, Timur Shah Durrani turns on his father’s most loyal supporter, Mir Noori Naseer Khan Brahui of Kalat. The move is likely aimed at establishing the total dominance of Timur Shah inside of Afghanistan as much as it is aimed at conquering Kalat, but it is still surprising considering the long history between Mir Noori Naseer Khan and the Durrani ruling family. Although initially the invasion appears to be a success, Timur Shah Durrani dies unexpectedly while leading his forces. Once news of his death reaches Kabul, his sons, Mahmud Shah Durrani, Zaman Shah Durrani, and Shah Shujah Durrani begin to vie for power and raise separate forces in order to fight one another. Whoever can gain control of the relatively professional force that Timur Shah Durrani assembled would likely win, although without leadership the professional Durrani army may not continue its existence for very long.
Following the decline of the Mughal Empire in India, the Rajput states descended into infighting, without a major leading power center in the area. Jaipur, which was once a leading city in the area has to fight off the Marathas, the Jats, and other Rajput states in order to try to preserve its position. The Maratha meanwhile seek to consolidate their influence over Rajputana in the same way the Mughals had, and Jaipur is the key to making it happen. Seeing opportunity in the disunity of the Rajputs, the Maratha send their best troops to subjugate the region.
The best the Maratha have to offer is a brigade under the command of Benoît de Boigne, an adventurer from Savoy. An elite force organized and trained by de Boigne, the brigade numbers some twelve thousand troops, and is supported by an elite cavalry force of three thousand. It includes the first ever hospital corps in India, and carries with it enough artillery to support every infantry battalion. In a matter of six months this brigade defeats over one hundred thousand Rajput soldiers and captures hundreds of camels, horses, and cannons. De Boigne’s troops take fortress after fortress by siege, with the Rajputs seemingly unable to offer any serious resistance to the well-trained troops. After a series of humiliating defeats at Patan, Mairtah, and Ajmer the Rajputs, including the rulers of Jaipur, agree to recognize the Maratha as rulers of northwest India.
Other Events
Thomas Paine's chief work Rights of Man is published in London.
The Brandenburg Gate in Berlin is finished.
The first issue of The Observer, the world's first Sunday newspaper, is published in London.
An ordinance is written barring the game of baseball within 80 yards of the Meeting House in Pittsfield, Massachusetts (first known reference to the game of baseball in North America).
Europe
The execution of the King of France and the pronouncement of the French Republic has the other European countries spooked. Even in Great Britain, where there are some sympathies towards the less radical aspects of the revolution, the government takes active steps to discourage revolutionary ideas. The Parliament passed the Seditious Meetings Act and the Combinations Act, restricting the rights of assembly and the formation of political organizations. There is essentially no public backlash against the acts, and although they do restrict public participation in civic matters slightly, the effect is rather small.
In preparation for an expanding role in the war against France, the British army is significantly expanded in size. A dozen new infantry regiments are joined by eight new cavalry regiments and twenty new artillery batteries. There are some concerns about the growing expenses associated with the war – the British government continues to borrow at alarming rates – but they are pushed aside for now. It is worth remembering, however, that the revolution in France started in part due to the inability of the government to pay its debts.
In France the economic situation is deteriorating somewhat rapidly. The government continues to be funded in large part by money and property that is seized from the nobility and the church, but without yet another round of confiscations the ability of the government to pay all of its bills next year looks bleak. Furthermore, the war in the northwest has hit the supply of bread and other foodstuffs hard, and prices are rising fast. Many poor, especially in Paris, are unable to afford even basic provisions. At the moment their anger is directed against the royalists, the foreign invaders, and the fictional hoarders of foodstuffs, but it could turn against the National Convention at any moment.
In the Netherlands the reaction to the revolution in France takes the form of centralization and consolidation of government. The autonomous states that used to make up the country are reduced to provinces, and a bi-cameral Parliament is established to represent the entire country. The Stadholder formally becomes Prince of the Netherlands, a position he has already held in all but name. Although the reforms are supported by the Orangists, they are opposed by the patriots, who themselves are emboldened by the events in France. There are plots afoot to bring the same kind of revolution that happened in France to the Netherlands.
Across the border from the Netherlands, Charles Theodore assumes his role as King of Burgundy. The major reforms of the Holy Roman Empire are only now beginning to be digested by all of the rulers of Germany. With everyone’s attention focused on France, these changes are likely to go unopposed, although many are uneasy with the disregard for historic tradition that the Emperor has shown. In Bavaria, now part of the Emperor’s realm, most people welcome the change, expecting the duchy to prosper as a result of a closer connection to Austria, and happy to be rid of Charles Theodore who was, at best ,indifferent to the situation there.
Emperor Leopold II, worried about the disturbance in Bohemia, and fearful that any little spark may ignite a revolution akin to the one in France, gives in to the demands of the Czech middle class. German troops are removed from Prague, and the re-institution of serfdom is revoked. The Emperor is celebrated in the city for his wisdom and his compassion. Those who believe that the country should evolve towards a more liberal arrangement believe, perhaps falsely, that Leopold may listen to them and implement their ideas, of only they make themselves heard. There is a renewed vigor in public discussions of politics, but very little of it is threatening in any way to the Emperor and the Empire. The acquisition of Bavaria is seen favorably among many of the Emperor’s subjects, and most ideas that are circulating around the Empire focus on the bright future that is ahead.
In Naples the events in France prompt a palace coup against the ruling faction. The Queen and her favorite, John Acton, have until now charted a pro-British course, and have been pushing for Naples to join the anti-French coalition. Frustrated by the possibility of war, Admiral Francesco Caracciolo and Fabrizio Cardinal Ruffo convince the King to remove Acton from power and replace him with Ruffo. While the setback to the Queen’s faction is unlikely to be permanent, and the King is likely to remain somewhat aloof of the Neapolitan politics, the new faction has a chance to try to solidify power and take the country in a different direction.
Venice is one place where the reaction to the French revolution takes a different course. Fearful of the possible violence that a confrontation with the lower classes would bring, the reformists who have taken power in Venice look for a compromise. The eventual solution is to extend the electoral franchise to the lower classes, making Venice one of the most democratic countries on the continent, and likely in the world. For the moment this compromise appears to have cooled tempers and it offers a way forward for the country, but the real test of it will come in the next year, when elections will have to be held.
Although Spain is only nominally involved in the war in France, the government uses this as an excuse to temporarily re-direct tithe money from the church to the state. Given the anti-clerical nature of the revolution in France there is considerable support for the proposal, even among the clergy. The government is not particularly effective at collecting the money, as it is not effective at collecting most taxes, but whatever is collected in the end contributes to the relatively stable state of the Spanish finances.
In an attempt to build on the prior reforms (some of which did not turn out so well), the Spanish government moves to liberalize trade in the country. Prior to the reform, colonial and some foreign trade could only pass through certain ports and was subject to a myriad of other restrictions. The opening of additional ports to trade helps restore much of the colonial mercantile traffic that was harmed by earlier changes. In addition, the fewer restrictions on other foreign trade help boost the amount of goods that flow in and out of Spain. In turn, the greater flow of trade helps generate even more revenue for the Spanish government.
Seeking additional revenue, the government of Denmark raises the rates charged for the sound dues on all countries except Russia and Great Britain. Sweden, in particular, is targeted, with Danish ships aggressively stopping merchant ships flying under the Swedish flag. The additional revenue for the Danes is not as much as could have been hoped (Russia and Great Britain make up the bulk of traffic), but the higher tolls do have a serious negative effect on Swedish trade, and in particular on Swedish manufacturing, which suddenly faces a significant hurdle to its development.
In Poland the Great Sejm appears set to adopt the provisions of the new Polish Constitution that creates a royal council to aid in governing the country. At the last moment, opposition to the idea unexpectedly scuttles it, and the vote fails. Dismayed by this outcome, the progressive reformers seek a way forward, and come up with what they believe to be a clever ruse – they will hold a secret meeting while many members of the opposition are away, and pass the provisions.
The underhanded maneuver provokes outrage across the country, including among the moderate supporters of the Sejm. Stanisław Szczęsny Potocki and other conservative nobles form the Targowica Confederation in opposition to the government, which attracts wide support across the country. Many of the patriotic officers in the new Polish army pledge their support to the confederation, appalled at the attempted subversion of the Sejm by the reformers. Potocki writes to Empress Catherine of Russia, imploring her to intervene on behalf of the Polish people, and the Empress graciously agrees.
The Russian intervention is clearly planned long in advance, and would go ahead regardless of the events at the Sejm. However, in the current situation, Catherine and the Russians are seen as benevolent liberators from a corrupt regime. With the Polish army in complete disarray as a result of defections in the officers’ corps, the invading Russian forces face essentially no opposition. Generals Suvorov, Rumyantsev, and Repnin, together with the forces of the Targowica Confederation secure the country in a matter of two months. King Stanisław August Poniatowski accepts the demands of the confederation after Russian troops enter Krakow, although it is clear that Yakov Ivanovich Bulgakov, Empress Catherine’s man in Warsaw, is the one calling the shots in Poland.
The Ottoman Sultan, keenly aware of the need to reform the Ottoman state, holds meetings with statesmen, notables, and foreign dignitaries employed by the Porte. He has visions for grand administrative and military reforms that will rejuvenate an empire that has been on the decline for over a century. The first of the steps in this direction, however, is rather minor. The Sultan sets up the New Revenues Treasury, responsible for retaining land that would previously be rented out in the feudal timariote system. As the land is recovered only when its current holders die, the process is slow, and will take decades to make much of a difference to the current system of landownership, although it does bring some immediate cash to the Sultan’s coffers.
Americas
Ratification by the states of the first ten amendments to the United States Constitution is completed, creating the United States Bill of Rights.
The British and French dispatch expeditions to the Caribbean to secure some of the French overseas possessions. Both expeditions meet with only moderate degree of success, at best. The Spanish have no trouble securing the sparsely-populated island of Tobago, but run into a problem on Guadeloupe. The local royalists on Guadeloupe have maintained control of the island, and have turned it into the center of royalist control in the Caribbean. Although the French forces on the island are smaller than the Spanish expeditionary force, the Spanish are reluctant to attack the royalists, and the standoff sours relations between the two sides.
The British expedition runs into trouble on Saint-Domingue. The wealthy white plantation owners initially welcome the British, hoping to use this opportunity to gain independence from France. However, in August, François Dominique Toussaint-Louverture and Jean-Jacques Dessalines lead an uprising of slaves against the white owners and the British occupation. More and more slaves join the revolt, which quickly spirals out of control. The British do their best to defend the island, but they lose almost two thousand soldiers in skirmishes and battles with the slaves. Over the fall and winter months the slaves kill approximately five thousand whites on the island, burning plantations and destroying white settlements. By the end of the year the British and white settlers control only a few isolated areas of the colony, and the Philip Affleck, the commander of the British expedition, requests additional troops to try to pacify the island.
To deal with the uprising in Brazil, Portugal raises additional troops and sends them to reinforce the colonial forces in Brazil. Additional Spanish troops arrive in the colony as well, with the clear intention of putting an end to any independence and republican movements. The Portuguese and Spanish impose martial law in the coastal areas of Rio de Janeiro, and then march into Minas Gerais. The small rebel militia of a couple hundred untrained men scatters in the only battle that the European troops fight during the course of the year. The instigators of the revolt are arrested and tried for their actions.
Middle East and Africa
In another turn of events that get stranger and stranger, the Danish fleet in the Mediterranean reinstates its blockade of Tripoli. Together with hired Greek and Arab mercenaries the Danes then launch a naval invasion of Misrata, which the small complement of Danish marines manage to occupy temporarily. The two feuding clans of the city, the Muntasir and the Adgham unite to oppose the Danes, murdering dozens of marines in ambushes around the city. The entire enterprise costs the Danes significant lives and gold, without a clear goal or beneficial outcome.
While the Danes are busy in Misrata, the Ottomans arrive in Tripolitania to offer help to the Pasha against the Danes. If anything, the Ottoman intervention weakens the position of the Pasha, as a number of local Turkish officers see this as an opportunity to topple the overbearing Karamanli dynasty. Unfortunately for them, Ali I Pasha has ruled the country with an iron fist for nearly four decades and has secured the loyalty of all major factions. An Ottoman officer named Ali Benghul, who was plotting against the Pasha is captured and executed. After putting down the impromptu insurrection, the Pasha begins preparing an expedition to oust the Danes with Ottoman help.
Asia and Oceania
In a strange turn of events that characterize tribal politics, Timur Shah Durrani turns on his father’s most loyal supporter, Mir Noori Naseer Khan Brahui of Kalat. The move is likely aimed at establishing the total dominance of Timur Shah inside of Afghanistan as much as it is aimed at conquering Kalat, but it is still surprising considering the long history between Mir Noori Naseer Khan and the Durrani ruling family. Although initially the invasion appears to be a success, Timur Shah Durrani dies unexpectedly while leading his forces. Once news of his death reaches Kabul, his sons, Mahmud Shah Durrani, Zaman Shah Durrani, and Shah Shujah Durrani begin to vie for power and raise separate forces in order to fight one another. Whoever can gain control of the relatively professional force that Timur Shah Durrani assembled would likely win, although without leadership the professional Durrani army may not continue its existence for very long.
Following the decline of the Mughal Empire in India, the Rajput states descended into infighting, without a major leading power center in the area. Jaipur, which was once a leading city in the area has to fight off the Marathas, the Jats, and other Rajput states in order to try to preserve its position. The Maratha meanwhile seek to consolidate their influence over Rajputana in the same way the Mughals had, and Jaipur is the key to making it happen. Seeing opportunity in the disunity of the Rajputs, the Maratha send their best troops to subjugate the region.
The best the Maratha have to offer is a brigade under the command of Benoît de Boigne, an adventurer from Savoy. An elite force organized and trained by de Boigne, the brigade numbers some twelve thousand troops, and is supported by an elite cavalry force of three thousand. It includes the first ever hospital corps in India, and carries with it enough artillery to support every infantry battalion. In a matter of six months this brigade defeats over one hundred thousand Rajput soldiers and captures hundreds of camels, horses, and cannons. De Boigne’s troops take fortress after fortress by siege, with the Rajputs seemingly unable to offer any serious resistance to the well-trained troops. After a series of humiliating defeats at Patan, Mairtah, and Ajmer the Rajputs, including the rulers of Jaipur, agree to recognize the Maratha as rulers of northwest India.
Other Events
Thomas Paine's chief work Rights of Man is published in London.
The Brandenburg Gate in Berlin is finished.
The first issue of The Observer, the world's first Sunday newspaper, is published in London.
An ordinance is written barring the game of baseball within 80 yards of the Meeting House in Pittsfield, Massachusetts (first known reference to the game of baseball in North America).
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