G’day all, just to update some news. I’ve found a new job as a chemical engineer in Newcastle, and have now moved into my own house- a bit of change from the share-housing I’ve been doing for the past five years. I’ve got my own computer at home, but no internet connection, but I can still post updates from work. Not sure how I’ll be able to post all the pictures, but anyway, here goes/
The Story so far
The Republic of China has passed through a tremendous period of turmoil. After yars ofanti-comunist campaigns and ceding territory to Japan, following the Xi’an incident, Chiang Kai-Shek, Premier and Generalissimo of the Republic abandoned his anti-communist campaign and grudgingly agreed to form the united front in order to resist Japanese aggression. After the Japanese began a full scale invasion in 1937, the republic was faced with it’s greatest test, but the united front successfully resisted the Japanese invasion, in part due to the contributions of the various warlord, communist and nationalist forces, and in part due to the reforms conducted by the German military mission. After the defeat of the Japanese and the annexation of Manchuria, a peace was forced which left China in control of Korea and Japan in control of Taiwan- an island Chiang regards rightfully as part of the republic.
With peace, Chiang turned swiftly and ruthlessly against his warlord and communist allies, including the recently established Democratic Republic of Korea, which Chiang had established as a ploy to weaken Japan. With the heavy industry of Manchuria fuelling to war machine of the National Revolutionary Army, the warlords were destroyed one by one, and the Communists ousted from the Yan’an Soviet. Now the only military forces defying the Generalissimo’s rule is the unlikely alliance of the remnants of the Red Army and the troops of the Panchen Lama, defending the Tibetan Plateau.
However, with total victory in China looming, Chiang very nearly lost it all, as the Guomindang left and various dissatisfied government ministers launched a coup led by the leftist Wang Jingwei and Lin Sen, one of Dr Sun Yat-Sen’s oldest comrades. In order to consolidate their position, the left then launched on an ambitious program of land reform, one of the Guomindang’s key promises, which Chiang and his allies on the right had long delayed. China was plunged into chaos by the land reform, which eventually led to the ousting of Wang Jingwei by a counter- coup led by the Guangxi generals, Li Zongren and Bai Chongxi. The intelligence services, namely the Bureau of Information and Statistics, led by Chiang’s crony Dai Li were relatively untouched, it upper echelons staffed by Zhejiang natives loyal to Chiang.
Now, the continuing fighting in Tibet, and Chiang weakened severely from the ordeal, he is forced to delegate authority as his punishing schedule is no longer possible as he recovers from his injuries. In some ways the authority of the Generalissimo has been weakened, as many supporters have been destroyed by Wang’s coup. In others, his authority has never been stronger, as the corruption and inequalities in land distribution have finally been addressed.
Now as relative peace comes about, China is at a cross roads. Will the Generalissimo allow a further erosion of his authority, allowing the Republic of China to become a genuinely democratic state? Or will he strengthen his authority further? Has Japan truly been defeated, or will its new leader Prime Minister Tojo, seek to reclaim Korea ad humble China again? Can the friendly relations with the US and other western powers remain, even while European powers continue to maintain treaty ports in China? Will China seek to re-establish an alliance with Germany or the Soviets? Can the Red Army finally be defeated? Find out in the next instalment of
Awakening the Dragon: The Guomindang at War
Peace in our time
September of 1940 saw the notoriously savage Himalayan winter approaching, a peace with Tibet became a pressing concern. With tens of thousands of NRA troops occupying Lhasa and western Tibet, the prospect of fighting a guerrilla campaign against Tibetan and Red Army forces, a peace became necessary. The fighting in Tibet had been slowed, rather than halted by Wang’s coup. The necessity of supplying an army many times the size of the local population with food and munitions was an enormous logistical undertaking, especially with Communist guerrillas harassing the supply lines the Chinese Army. Even the well-trained and veteran mountain troops found the going difficult. The Chinese Air Force was a distinct advantage, as the forces facing them had no defence against the Chinese aircraft, even if by western standards they were small, obsolete and poorly designed for the task at hand, consisting mostly of PBY-Catalina search planes produced by CAMCO under license from US companies, as well as a few hundred obsolete Italian, German and American planes.
The Chinese Air force bombs Tibetan troops with their long range naval bombers
Even if things were bad for the Chinese troops occupying Tibet, things were far worse for the Tibetan population of Tibet, as the Panchen Lama, Tibet’s poltical leader well knew. Most Tibetan families had only barely enough barley to survive over then winter, nearly all of which had been forcibly requisitioned by either the Nationalist of Communist Chinese forces. Likewise, the Yak herds which provided the meat and milk had had their numbers reduced considerably to feed Chiang’s voracious armies. Tibet faced a starvation on a massive scale.
It was under these circumstances that various peace offers began to be put out between Chiang and the Panchen Lama Reting Rimpoche, as both now had reasons to bring the war to a conclusion- Chiang to preserve his army, and Rheting to preserve his people. Under conditions of the strictest secrecy, Chiang met secretly with Panchen Lama outside Lhasa to discuss the conditions of a peace.
The Panchen lama, Reting Rimpoche. With the Dalai lama still an infant, Reting was the most powerful man in Tibet, spiritually and politically.
Chiang had once been a Buddhist, and was vaguely discomforted by fighting against the Panchen Lama, and was prepared to offer the Panchen Lama generous terms. In several weeks of hard bargaining, the final deal was agreed. Tibet would become a protectorate of China, ceding control of foreign diplomacy to China, but not be subject to direct control from Nanjing. The Panchen Lama would retain control of the administration of Tibet, and the land reforms that were sweeping China would not occur in Tibet, where the monasteries and aristocrats would retain their privileged position. Indeed, if anything, the position of the Lamas would be reinforced by Nationalist rifles.
Tibetan aristocrats enjoy a spot of tennis.
Apart from a garrison in Lhasa, the National Revolutionary Army would be withdrawn from Tibet. Food would be transferred to Tibet to avert famine, but the most important part of the peace deal was that the Tibetans turn against their current allies, Mao and the Red Army. It was part of the peace deal that Rheting was easily prepared to accept. The alliance had always been one of necessity, and the Tibetan monks had no love for the dangerously subversive doctrines of the Communists.
Whenever the Communist bandits go, the first thing they do is to burn the temples and monasteries, destroy the Buddhist statues, kill the lamas, and silence the sound of prayers... No wonder everyone hates them. They are a big threat to all Bhuddists... Arm yourselves, help the Nationalist troops, and prepare to defend yourselves against the evil enemies of your religion. Don’t believe in their sweet propaganda! They will burn your house and destroy your family. I am telling you this out of a kind intention to save you and the world.
Panchen Lama Rheting Rimpoche
Chiang appointed a pro-nationalist Tibetan lama, Nuona, as his “Propagating and Pacifying Envoy”, to urge the Tibetans to follow the words of the Panchen Lama and annihilate the Communists.
As winter approached, the Red Army was on the move away from Tibet. Despite the efforts of the Nationalist Army, air force and the Tibetan forces, the Communists did not give up, their faith in the final victory undimmed. Despite the formal establishment of Tibet in October of 1940, Mao and the Red Army had already gone. To where, only Mao and his senior cadres knew.
To Chiang, the annexation of Tibet was a welcome end to a campaign that had dragged on far too long. Equally, in the person of the Panchen lama, he had acquired a powerful ally whose voice could speak to millions of Buddhists throughout Asia. His support would be extremely important for Chiang’s next struggles.
