Golden Horde, Crimea and Lithuania
Mostly till 1478; plus about Crimean Vassalship.
In some places I use Polish phonetical transcriptions for Tatar names (Polish-English transciption would be like: y = i, sz = sh, ch = kh, j = y, w = v, dż = jj etc.) e.g. Hadży Gerej = Hajji Giray; mostly because my books use it
, and I am too lazy to dig up most popular English transcriptions of these names
Lithuanian dukes were meddling in Golder Horde's internal matters since XVIth century. When Tochtamysz was defeated by Tamerlan in 1395, he was able to keep Crimea with help of Vytautas. However defeat at Worskla river stoped Lithuanian plans to subjugate Golden Horde. Tochtamysz was eventally murdered by his competitors on the steppes. In 1409 the oldest son of Tochtamysz, Dżelal ed-Din, settled in Lithuania with part of Horde and even participated in war against Teutonic Order. In 1411 Vytautas succeded in putting docile Dżelal ed-Din on the Tatar throne, however Dżelal did not rule long and was deposed by Edygej.
After shot fighting Edygej made it up with Vytautas. After death of Edygej (murdered in 1419), Golden Horde had another round of internal warfare and instability. Vytautas decided to exploit situation and supported Hadży Gerej (father of Hadży Gerej, after defeat of Tochtamysz, also went to Crimea but was expelled and finally settled in Lithuania, Hadży Gerej was born in Troki, near border with Teutonic Order (Vytautas settled Tatars there to protect his borders against TO)). At the beginning Hadży faced defeats, but finally in years 1428-1430, with help of aristocratic family Szirin, he took over control of (part of) Crimea. At the beginning his rule was rather weak and limited (regarding area), his main city was Kirkyeri. Many coastal cities (like Kaffa) still considered Golden Horde as their overlord and paid tribute to the Khan in Saray. It seems that at the beginning Gerej accepted two overlords: Vytautas and khan of the Golden Horde. In 1433 Gerej for a short time forced Kaffa to accept his authority, later other port cities like Gozlewe and far-away Tana (Azov) accepted his suzerainty as well.
When after death of Vitautas Lithuania has pluged into civil war both sides cooperated with Tatars. Svitrigaila suported khan of Great Horde (in game still Golden Horde) Sajjid Ahmed and Zygimantas supported Hadży Gerej. When Kazimieras (future king of Poland Kazimierz) started rule in Lithuania in 1440 he supported Hadży Gerej and Gerej reciprocated helping in fight with new pretender to the Lithuanian throne, son of Zygimantas (Michailis), who in turn was supported by Sajjid Ahmed (Khan of Great Horde)). Golden or rather Great Horde attacked Poland and Lithuania in 1448 and 1449, in response Kazimierz attacked lands controlled by Ahmed in 1450. In 1452 Lithuanian royal opposition (after death of Svitrigaila significant opposition rose in Lithuanian (they rose several times during reign of Kazimieras)) contacted Great Horde and allied with Ahmed. Ahmed attacked again in 1453 and 1455 when was utterly defeated by Crimean and Polish-Lituanian troops. Ahmed has escaped to Kiev (Kiev had significant degree of autonomy and at that time was ruled by prince Olelkowicz). Initially Olelkowicz (member of opposition) declined to give up Ahmed but was forced and Ahmed has been imprisoned in Kowno (Kaunas). Oposition in Lithuania has been broken.
Due to the defeat of Ahmed, Hadży Gerej gained complete indepenence from the Great Horde and significantly increased his domain (before ruled only S-E part of the Crimean Penninsula and was supported by two aristocratic clans, now two new clans joined him). His rule extended over almost whole Crimea, Black See steppes around Crimea and what was the most important: port cities. Again, Kaffa was the most recalcitrant. To crush resistance of Kaffa, Gerej allied with Mehmed II and in 1454 attacked Kaffa. Kaffa withstood siege but had to submit and agreed to pay tribute. At that time Gerej deliberately was weakening Italian cities by banning trade with them and organizing own trade markets in Kerch and Ikerman, however later he renewed trade contacts. According to the Ottoman cronicles of Ankaral Hekim Yahyi, Hadży Gerej was suzerain of the whole Crimea including cities: Kirkeyeri, Solhat, Kaffa, Kerch, Taman and lord of steppes of Kipchak and Kouban (at least parts close to Crimea).
Gerej had strong aristocratic opposition in Crimea and in not clear conditions between 1456 and 1465 lost rule due to the rebellion of part of the aristocracy suported by Genoese cities and allied with Khan of Great Horde Ahmed. Gerej had to flee to Lithuania or Ottoman Empire. Khan of Great Horde took over rule in Crimea. However, soon mirza Eminek and clan Szirin rebelled against Ahmed and with help of King of Poland Kazimierz, Hadży Gerej restored his rule. From that time one document survived. It is dated on 22 september 1461 and Hadży Gerej secedes Kazimierz all rights to rule over the Ruthenian lands formerly controled by Tatars (already ruled by Lithuania and Poland since at least 1370-80). Document include names of cities like Kiev, Kamieniec-Podolski, Luck, Braclav, Czerkasy, Sokal, Brest, Smolensk, Putywl, Rylsk, Kursk, Starodub, Briansk, Mecensk, Lubuck and Tula. It must have been form of pay-back, however it is unsure if at that moment Gerej was in exile or in Crimea.
Near the end of his rule Hadży Gerej was worried by the Ottoman expansion in the area of the Black See, however Polish king Kazimierz was busy in war against Teutonic Order and could not commit himself in Black See politics. Hadży Gerej, called Melek (Angel) due to his good look, died in 1466 and left three sons: Nur Dewlet, Mengli and Hajdar. Each of them wanted to rule, so fights between them erupted soon. Internal divisions and conflicts of interests between Great Horde, Ottoman Empire and aristocratic clans (with most prominent clan Szirin) were revealed. Also Genoese cities has aktivized themselves. Because sources from years 1466-1478 are not complete, not all is clear. It is known that Hajdar did not play active role for long, however he ruled Crimea few months after death of Hadży Gerej. In his opposition were Mengli supported by Crimean separatists in aristocracy and Nur Dewlet supported by Great Horde. Mengli dethroned Hajdar and Crimea was ruled by two brothers: Mengli took control of part of country with support of mirza Eminek and Szirin clan, Genoese and Turks, while Nur Dewlet was supported by Great Horde (and obtained official "paper" from Khan of Great Horde entitling him to rule over the whole Crime).
Mengli has proposed Muscovy cooperation offering common fight against Lithuania. In 1469, Nur Dewlet with help of part of Nogais, deposed brother Hajdar and supported by troops of Great Horde defeated Mengli and forced him to flee from Kirkyeri to Kaffa. Genoese cities agreed to support Mengli at the price of lowering their tribute. After gaining throne Nur Dewlet sent emissary (among others) to Poland and assured Kazimierz about his friendship.
In 1471 Mengli with help of Eminek overthrown brother and gained power. In 1473 signed alliance with Ivan III, aimed against Great Horde and Jagiellon states. This shift in politics was caused by the alliance between Kazimierz and Khan Ahmed aimed against Muscovy. In may 1475 Khan of Greater Horde entered Crimea and seated on the Crimean throne Dżanibek (not related to the Gerej family). Eminek called for the Ottoman Empire help, which was gladly granted. Powerful army of Great Vizier Gedlik Ahmed Pasha landed on Crimea and after stong bombardment forced pro-Ahmed Kaffa to capitulate. Soon all other port cities joined Kaffa's fate. Theodoro, defended by Wallachians, was last to capitulate.
Both brothers tried to appeal for Ottoman help. Exploiting Ottomans successes, also Eminek probably has decided to gain the throne for himself. In 1476 Eminek with Nur Dewlet (they have temporarily reconciled) led Tatar forces to support Ottomans in their Moldavian campaign. Exploiting their absence (Mengli was imprisoned by Ottomans at that time) Ahmed entered Crimea again and set Dżanibek back on the throne. But it was the last intervention of Great Horde in Crimea. Both Nur Dewlet and Mengli appealed for Ottoman help and the first one gained rule and second remained imprisoned. Eminek, seeing his chances diminished took up the Mengli cause again and appealed to the Sultan in the name of all Tatar aristocracy. In 1478 Mehmed II send army back to Crimea, removed all pretenders (Nur Dewlet, Dżanibek and Hajdar) and seated Mengli on the throne.
It was in year 1478 when Mengli signed treaty with Ottomans and this year should be considered as start of Crimean vassalship (not in 1475 what appears in most articles, and Muscovy/Russia completely did not participate at all in these matters). However Turkish garrisons in Kaffa, Mankop and Azov (since 1475) and even treaty of 1478 did not make Crimea obedient vassal.
Points of treaty:
- Khan had full internal power
- Khan was to be chosen from Gerej family by Tatar aristocracy
- Khan had to support Ottomans in their wars
- Sultan was supposed to supervise foreign policy of Crimea (this point very often was not realized)
- Sultan had right to nominate religious officials (this gave OE significant influence on Crimean internal matters)
This treaty gave Crimea some material gains:
- salijane - yearly recompensation for loss of taxes from Kaffa and lost tibute of previously Genoese cities
- tesnifat - "gifts" given to khan and high officials after their nomination
- tirkes baha - paid for Tatar military help in Ottoman campaigns (first time received in 1484)
- sekbanakcesi - subsidies paid each year to maintain Crimean regular army (sekban)
- hass - paid to Gerej princes living in Constantinople (expelled or hostages)
Later Crimea received also part of Moldavia's and Wallachia's tribute and Gerejs became owners of big estates in Anatolia and Rumelia. But these incomes were not staggering, in 1743 Ottoman subsidies amounted to 16% of Crimean budget (according to someones calculations).
Vassal relationships gave Sultans right to accept new Khans (or not). In following years Ottomans increased their garrisons in Crimea and expanded them to Kerch, Jenikale, Taman, Temruk, Oil Burun, Sogudiak, Or (Perekop) and Ozu (Ochakov). After long struggles (with help of Crimean army), Ottomans eventually captured Kilia and Akerman in 1484 and gained land connection between Rumelia and Crimea which even futher limited Crimean Khan's liberty, however Gerejs had preserved rights to separate policy against Muscovy and Poland, and in practice it was fully independent policy. Gerejs had also right to mint their own currency.
Degree of Khan's freedom depended on the internal strenght of Khan and Sultan, Sultan's involvement in wars in Asia and Europe and strength of Poland and Muscovy/Russia.
First Ottoman vassal was Mengli Gerej, he was loyal to Mehmed II but even he was rather realizing Crimean not Ottoman interests in Moldavia. When relatively weak Bayezid II started his rule, Mengli started to act not as vassal but member of Sultans family. His daughters married two next Sultans (Selim and Suleyman) and Mengli started to interfere in internal Ottoman conflicts (between Bayezid and Selim). When Selim gained throne after deposal of Bayezid in 1512, Mengli started to act almost as suzerain of his son-in-law, who addressed him in letters with esteem as his father. Expansion of Selim in Africa and against Persia allowed Mengli to have completely free hand in European politics.
Succesions after Mengli (died in 1515) were result of compromise between Ottomans and Tatar aristocracy, and only Sahib Gerej gained throne in 1532 due to the Ottoman military intervention. That is why he remained loyal to Suleyman and participated in his wars, but even he sometimes acted against directly expressed Ottoman directives in his politics regarding Muscovy and Caucassus.
That's it for now. As we can see looking at Golden Horde, Crimean, Theodoro, Lithuanian etc. events and setup, they are far way from what was portrayed in my book.