American outrage at British perfidy demonstrated itself in many ways, from the wrecking of shops to the mobbing of (now abandoned) British consulates. One consequence of this ‘war fever’ was an overwhelming rush to join the colors. Secretary Longstreet had been right that the volunteers – the militia organizations who formed the bulk of the mobilized army – would be infuriated to be called back into service only weeks after they had returned home from Spain. President Hancock had been correct that their anger would be directed toward Britain. While the volunteer units were assembling, the War Department and the Navy decided to embark on some small operations to show the nation that the war was being taken to the enemy. With Watertown, New York, still in Canadian hands, actions were needed which would not put the slender regular army or the few warships remaining in home waters at risk.
Troops were taken from Hispaniola and landed on the undefended islands of Jamaica and the Bahamas. Elements of the Washington garrison were railed to upstate New York and placed under the command of a fuming General Philip Sheridan. More could not be done until additional troops could be concentrated, for ten thousand Canadians were now dug in around Watertown and it would take a large force, well-supplied with artillery, to oust them. Finally reinforced to three divisions of regulars, men obtained by stripping the garrisons of the east coast, Sheridan in late July launched a wide turning maneuver around the Canadian left flank. Hard fighting ensued as the defenders tried to block the maneuver, then made a fighting withdrawal. Sheridan pushed his men relentlessly through the hot summer days in pursuit. The Canadians made a heroic stand at Ottawa on August 4th, but without time to prepare fortifications they were utterly routed.
The Republic of Mexico had eagerly honored its treaty commitment with the United States, declaring war on Great Britain and hurling a hundred thousand men into British-occupied Yucatan and Belize. In eastern Africa, the British Army in Kenya came across the border to invade American Tanga. With three divisions of colonial infantry in his department and no sign of any Royal Navy warships, General Richards withdrew before the invaders while throwing one column northeast into Nairobi and landing another in Mombasa in their rear. All three elements then converged on the division at Tanga, which was destroyed after hard fighting.
American public opinion had been sent soaring by the victories of their Navy, but there was serious underlying disquiet over the fact that the Atlantic and Caribbean waters were now virtually undefended. Sensational stories circulated: a handful of British cruisers could lay waste to New York, require Philadelphia to pay ransom, or shell the inhabitants of Boston until they went mad from terror. Vainly the Navy Department argued that the English Channel was the solar plexus of the enemy, the place where a disabling blow could and must be struck, and the place where the enemy would concentrate his ships. On August 10th, the worst fears of those who wanted the Navy brought home to guard the Atlantic coast were realized, for that was when the first regiments of British troops came splashing ashore on the beaches of Delaware.
A map of the Chesapeake Bay area, showing British control of the southern DelMarVa peninsula
If the English Channel was the ‘solar plexus’ of Great Britain, the Chesapeake Bay area would be its American counterpart. Within a few miles of its waters are the ports of Philadelphia and Baltimore, the national capital of Washington, the great naval base of Norfolk, and in Wilmington, Delaware, the DuPont works, which produced half the nation’s explosives. From the Chesapeake region an army would be well positioned to move north to Philadelphia, west to Baltimore or southwest to Washington. The Bay is sheltered from the Atlantic by a large, flat peninsula on its eastward side; the narrow passage at the southern end is the only entrance or exit. That peninsula is commonly called DelMarVa, from the three states having territory on it. The peninsula is flat and lightly wooded, with numerous farms and small towns. Its eastern shore features long stretches of level, sandy beach which are the resort of choice for vacationers; as a consequence the railroad on the eastern side is able to move heavy traffic. In the center is the Maryland town of Salisbury, which functions as unofficial capital of the region and is the center of the road and railroad network. North of Salisbury, the next town of any size is Dover, the capital of Delaware. The sole deficiency of the DelMarVa peninsula as a staging base for invasion is however a very large one. There exists no deepwater port on the Atlantic side, and the entrance to the Bay is closed by fortifications and torpedo boats operating from Norfolk. To secure a port, the British Army would have to force its way north, or the Royal Navy must break open the entrance to the Chesapeake.
Regardless of this, British soldiers began coming ashore on August 10th, and their numbers were steadily increased. General Charles Gordon had very reluctantly accepted command of the expedition only after a personal appeal from the monarch, and his concerns were reflected in the difficulty of building up a force over the beachheads. Gordon’s men quickly secured the southern end of the peninsula but he was reluctant to move northward until all his strength was on hand. As one might expect, the beaches were chaotic and the logistical challenges were immense, as no British army of this size had attempted an invasion of a foreign power since the Crimean War. Neither had any living British general experienced the perils of commanding a force of this size: despite the difficulty of landing and supplying it, Gordon’s army would eventually grow to more than a hundred thousand men.
While Gordon struggled to organize his men for the offensive, the Americans had their own problems, chiefly a lack of soldiers. Since an effective American response depended upon the mobilization of the reserve formations, General Clark contented himself with digging a single division in on the north side of the Chesapeake-Delaware Canal. The northern half of the peninsula thus became a no-man’s-land of night patrols. Whichever army could move first seemed likely to be the victor of the campaign.
On September 1st, with American arms crowned with victories on land and sea but with an enemy army only one hundred miles away from the nation’s capital, President Hancock traveled to Lexington, Kentucky to speak to a gathering of veteran soldiers from the Civil War. Men of both the Confederate and Union armies would be flocking in; former Generals Robert E Lee and Gouverneur Warren would be joining President Hancock and Secretary of War James Longstreet for the occasion. Former General Ulysses Grant had sent his regrets, as his health was very bad (he would pass away two weeks later). General Lee was thought to be too frail and ill to travel, but at the insistence of his doctors and his family he had decided to make the trip, which was to be his last public appearance. These gatherings had become more common as the bitterness of the war had mellowed, and were marked by good-natured chaffering and gentle rivalry rather than partisan hatred.
“General!” Lee said brightly, his animated voice belying his white hair and whiskers, his slow step and the cane in his trembling hand. “Might I sit with you a moment?” Longstreet would have refused Lee nothing, would have gone to find him had he known his old commander was on this train. The club car was almost deserted, for most of its occupants had flocked to the early seating in the dining car. Outside the windows, evening was shading down into night, the wild hills of Kanawha draped in a somber darkness unbroken by the lights of habitation. Longstreet made to get to his feet but Lee restrained him with a hand, then settled into the offered leather armchair. Longstreet had been reading and making notes in the margins and he gladly set that aside. “Paperwork,” he growled. “Can’t stand it, but we can’t run the Army without it.”
Lee smiled and nodded his agreement, and then turned his attention to the young lady by his side. “Dorothea, this is my old comrade, James Longstreet. General, Dorothea is my niece, along so that we may dote upon one another.” They smiled at each other and Longstreet allowed that he was very pleased to meet her. Then Lee shooed her away.
“I’ll bring back something for you gentlemen from the dining car,” she said, prettily. “Mister Longstreet I’m sure is perfectly reasonable and may look after himself, but Uncle will not eat unless I make him.”
Once she was through the doorway, Lee sighed and seemed to lose energy. “I had hoped to have a word with you concerning this recent invasion of Maryland,” he said. ‘Pete’ Longstreet took his unlit cigar out of his mouth and rolled it in his fingers while his mind raced. It was altogether unlike Lee to be so direct, except on campaign.
“My doctors are not hopeful,” Lee said. Longstreet started, and Lee waved aside the unspoken concern as if it were a fly. “The family trusts the cool air and good fellowship will be a tonic for me. And it may, but the truth is there is nothing else to be tried. I am old, and I do not have the time for courtesy I once did – not that there was ever any need for such between you and I.” He paused. Lee had always been careful of his words. “I have heard nothing to say so, but you must be assembling an army, to cover the neck at Havre de Grace if not to move directly upon the enemy.” He paused again, inquiringly, and Longstreet gave a careful nod – Havre de Grace was indeed to be the headquarters of General Arthur MacArthur’s new Army of the Chesapeake, but that decision had only been made earlier that day.
With a hefty number of the regular army’s senior officers either still in Spain or unused to working with volunteer troops, Longstreet had written to Lee for help in naming officers for the Army. Longstreet had urged Lee to take command of the forces massing against the British and Lee had politely declined; the making of war, he said, had changed too much, and his health was too uncertain. He had not offered any thoughts as to other qualified officers, and Longstreet supposed he would receive that advice now. “I would be grateful for your observations,” Longstreet said. “as always. With our senior commanders engaged in service from the Phillipines to Africa, and with so many of our senior officers stranded in Spain, we are hard pressed to fill our command and staff positions. And of course we are seriously embarrassed for troops until our mobilization is completed, though we do not want that to get into the newspapers. We believed MacArthur was still in Spain until he turned up in New York a few days ago. Have you heard of his exploits?”
Lee smiled and nodded; MacArthur’s escape from Spain on a Portuguese steamer had been reported in every newspaper.“I have no suggestion to make as to who should command that army,” Lee said, then paused. “But I believe I may confidently offer someone for command of a corps: Thomas Jackson.”
Longstreet was stunned and at pains to hide it while Lee only smiled angelically. “Jackson?” Longstreet said. “Thomas Jackson – old Stonewall? Sir, he left the army – well, he was wounded and then left the army – but he left us before the war was over and never came back.
Jackson? I don’t doubt he was capable…at least then…”
Lee nodded. “His was a crisis of conscience, James. A true struggle, which I witnessed at first hand. I tried to counsel him otherwise, but selfishly, for I did not wish to lose the services of such a fine officer. I thought then he might have had the right of the matter, and the judgement of the Almighty has since confirmed it. We were in the wrong… the Confederacy was an experiment that did not have the blessing of the Almighty, and so it perished.” He paused. “We all had our duty to perform, and we did so. But I cannot condemn Jackson for his doubts, or for his conception of his duty.” Another pause; the old general bowed his head briefly, then resumed.”With that aside, General, you have need of a man who can turn a militia into veteran soldiers, and more than that you have need of a man who can strike a blow. Of all the soldiers I know – yourself included, and myself also – I believe Jackson to be that man.”
That was unprecedented praise. “But sir, even if I could convince men to serve under him, or find a commander willing to take him, what if he just up and quits again? This British army in Salisbury is the biggest threat to this country since… since…”
“Us?” Lee said innocently, but with a devilish twinkle sparkled in his eyes. “I have taken the liberty of speaking to Thomas.” Lee raised a wrinkled hand. “If I should not have done so, I ask your pardon, but the matter seemed urgent enough. He has prayed on it, and will accept, if the offer is made. As for the rest, why, men will follow him, James – they always did, and will again. I will speak for him, when you have determined who shall lead the army, if you believe it would be of assistance to you.”
Longstreet ran over the consequences of having Lee speak to Sheridan, who still profanely detested anything having to do with the late Confederacy, or the New York-born MacArthur, or even to Hancock. If Lee wanted to make a fuss about this he had the stature to cause the governors of the southern states to send in a petition… The options seemed to narrow and his lips moved in silent curses under his beard. He never had been able to stand up to the old man, especially when he got his mind set on something! At last he decided to temporize, but before he could speak Lee leaned forward and took him by the arm.
“Pete – my old war horse. I feel so much affection for you, and such pride in your service to your country. Yet this is not an old man’s fancy.” Longstreet looked Lee in the eyes and saw the cold resolution there, the solid purpose and certainty Lee had always shown during the war, and his skin prickled. “Those people must be destroyed, General. Not only defeated, if God grants us the right, but destroyed utterly, that no other nation will ever make sport of us. Jackson is the instrument for that task, and none other is as fit. You need a sword – you cannot do it, nor I, but Jackson is still keen.”
Longstreet waited a moment to see if Lee would continue but the old man seemed exhausted by his emotion. “Sir, I will take your suggestion under very close advisement – I must say that, though I would deny you nothing, I can promise nothing save careful consideration.” He was silent for a moment, then sighed. “Britain believes our people are disloyal, and will not fight, and half of the people of the Union believe the same. A southern officer in a prominent position would go far to show that dissention is a thing of the past.” Another long pause. “I will see if some position can be found for General Jackson.”
Lee nodded wearily. “Let us then speak of more pleasant things. But, General – remember what I tell you. In the late war the Yankees never had a man who could drive home an assault like Jackson, and we had only the one. When your army must strike, Jackson is the man.”