A History of the Second Roman Empire: The Imperial Years
~~~~~~~~~~
Chapter VI: Island Hopping
Nearly a half decade of steady and determined consolidation, reform, and imperial administration had produced for Pope Sixtus IV a prosperous state arguably more capably administrated than any other realm in Europe. Certainly, tax revenues did not match those of France or the combined Castillian/Aragonese realms, but the multitude of former Italian trade hubs stitched together by Papal
imperium and a considerably centralized state apparatus were hardly barren of gold to fill Rome's coffers.
Backed by this reliable stream of income, Sixtus IV determined to expand the empire once more. The situation had changed greatly since the time of Calixtus III or Pius II; the dreaded Northern Alliance had disintegrated with the inevitable pressures of medieval
realpolitik, and the Ottoman presence on the continent was focused chiefly on the small scrap of land on the Dalmatian coastline. But instead of a determined strike at the now-vulnerable Venetian empire, Sixtus's eyes were diverted elsewhere.
A small but vocal group of cardinals and bishops still remained hostile to the Spanish kingdom of Aragon, clinging to the grudge fostered by the diplomatic fall-out during Calixtus's time. Although relations had normalized to a degree since the diplomatic campaign of the mid-70s, hostilities still remained, evidenced by the substantial garrisons both Mediterranean kingdoms stationed on their respective sides of the Strait of Messina. The thought of risking a majority of the Empire's army in an assault on the rugged Sicilian or Sardinian terrain had little appeal to the Pope. Indeed, the prospect of an easy expansion of Roman control of the Holy Land - the Mamluk kingdom remained mired in civil strife and internal instability - remained far more appealing.
However, in 1476, the situation changed remarkably. The three kingdoms of Spain, Castile, Aragon, and Navarre had been involved in a war with Portugal far longer than anyone had expected. The Portugese armies had repeatedly held off the far larger Spanish forces. Faced with the prospect of defeat, Aragon stripped its Mediterranean islands of their garrisons, leaving the once heavily fortified city of Messina bare, save for a small contingent of local militia. Distracted by war closer to home, Aragon would be unable to properly respond to any Papal offensives. Egged on by the talented, and vocal, General Montefeltro, Sixtus IV began making preparations for an attack.
But the move toward war was, at least for Montefeltro, agonizingly slow. More than a year passed as the Empire's armies and navies moved into position for the attack. Much of the blame can be attributed to Sixtus's concerns over a local revolt in Judea, which continued to successfully resist Papal suppression efforts throughout the early months of 1477. But finally, the Legion of Holy Wrath, ten thousand strong and mostly comprised of soldiers from Tuscany, and the Legion of Holy Justice, fifteen thousand strong under Montefeltro, were ready. War was declared on 2 August, 1477.
The initial moves of the war were uneventful. The Legion of Holy Wrath landed unopposed in Sardinia in September, while Montefeltro crossed the Straits in October. Aragonese troops were nowhere to be seen. But Aragon was far from helpless. Genoa, exposed after the fallout with Venice, had signed an alliance with Aragon. The Duchy of Burgundy, though in its waning days, remained formidably expansive and had been an ally of the Spanish kingdoms against Portugal. Now, the Duchy had an outlet for its armies. While the Empire's legions remained mired in siege warfare, it would be remarkably easy for either Genoa or Burgundy to capture the lands north of the Po. Inexplicably, Genoa withheld its thirty thousand soldiers, while only a small Burgundian raiding party crossed the Alps.
It was not until August 1478 that Messina finally fell to Montefeltro's soldiers. Sardinia fell a month later. While Montefeltro moved to capture the rest of the island, the Legion of Holy Wrath was transported west and landed on the Baleares islands. The goal was to deprive Aragon of her Mediterranean strongholds and threaten the mainland. Still bogged down fighting the Portuguese, the islands were unguarded.
Montefeltro proved far more capable after the fall of Messina, completing his subjugation of the island before February. His timing for indeed fortuitous, because the Genoan armies finally went on the move in March, crossing the Po and assaulting Milan, which fell 23 April 1479. With the no organized resistance to stop Genoa in the north, Montefeltro hurried back across the Straits and up the peninsula to salvage the situation. Pausing only to gather 6,000 reinforcements in Rome, Montefeltro was by June rushing to relieve Parma, which had been repeatedly assaulted that same month.
Battle was finally met on 8 September. By then, Parma's situation was desperate. Barely seven hundred men remained at arms within the city. But the repeated assaults had worn out Genoa's armies. Montefeltro routed the Genoan forces, hurling them back toward their capital. The Papal general dogged the Genoans relentlessly, meeting the remnants of his foe outside the capital walls. Exhausted, demoralized, and reinforced with raw recruits, the Genoan army was swept aside by the Legion of Holy Justice. Now desperate, the Genoans sued for peace. With rumor of an incoming Burgundian force and Milan still held by the Genoans, Montefeltro was delighted to end hostilities.
Wasting no time, Montefeltro crossed the Po and headed toward Milan. Barely had be reached the city when he encountered the rumored Burgundian army. Outnumbered, Montefeltro's fifteen thousand-strong army retreated back toward Parma. Instead of investing Milan, the Burgundians chose instead to move east to link up with their compatriots raiding the countryside around Mantua. Quickly discerning his foe's intent, Montefeltro recrossed the Po and followed after. After repulsing the enemy's reinforcements, Montefeltro moved toward Mantua. Although the Baleares islands had surrendered in January, all attention was focused on northern Italy, where the deciding battle could once more lie.
On 3 March, 1480, Montefeltro encountered Burgundy's force. Twenty-six thousand strong, it handily outnumbered the Imperial forces. Still, Montefeltro launched his infantry in a ferocious frontal assault. The Burgundian left flank was anchored to the Po, while the right flank stood between the Italians and the road from Mantua to Verona. The Burgundian line held and began moving forward on both flanks to encircle Montefeltro. But late in the afternoon, the tide suddenly turned. The imperial cavalry emerged on the road from Verona, having stormed the small garrison within the city the day before. Its rear now badly exposed, the Burgundian morale collapsed as the right flank disintegrated under an all-out cavalry charge. When the sun set just three hours later, all but six thousand had either been captured or killed, while the survivors were sent fleeing toward the Alpine passes.
The battle effectively ended Burgundy's role in the war, but Aragon remained unbeaten in battle. While the Legion of Holy Justice stood watch in Lombardy, it was up to the nine thousand men of the Legion of Holy Wrath to bring the war to a close. Ferried by the the Pontifical navy, the legion went ashore in late August north of Barcelona and moved inland, besieging Gerona a few days before the month was out.
Faced with an actual invasion, the Aragonese armies were forced to move against the Papal army. The Spaniards made a determined effort against the Tuscan soldiers, who had entrenched themselves superbly in the hilly terrain of northern Spain. Twenty thousand men battered themselves against the impregnable line on 4 October. The nine thousand Tuscans held and counterattacked the next day, throwing the astonished Aragonese back to Barcelona.
A quarter of Aragon's army had been wiped out in two days of fighting and Gerona was still cut off. With Genoa out of the war, Burgundy unwilling to send more troops across the Alps, and Castile signing a separate peace with Portugal, Aragon's position had decayed immensely. Negotiations soon began and on 30 October, an agreement was reached with the Pope's representatives. Along with an end to the war, the Empire would receive the islands of Sicily and Sardinia. Sixtus IV had achieved a stunning victory, once again having demonstrated the sheer martial might of the empire's legions in the twin victories in northern Italy and northeastern Spain. He had also broken a long precedent, being the first pope in memory to have actually lived long enough to see the outcome of the war he had started.
.
