Chapter X: Russians in China
Russia is China’s largest neighbor and although the history of Sino-Russian relations is relatively short the Russian people have had an important impact on China. In the 1910s and 1920s the history of Russian people in China has to be set against the backdrop of the political upheaval in Russia. With this in mind, here is a summary of the key role Russians played in some of the events in China during the early republican period.
First Russian settlers in China are the Jirjak people who flee the reforms of Peter the Great and settle in Xinjiang. By mid-19th century Russian merchants are common in Xinjiang and cross-border trade is robust even if there is little cross-border migration. It is not until the October Revolution that large numbers of Russians move to Xinjiang, with many Cossacks and other White Russian soldiers finding refuge there. General Ivanov and his Cossack troops become an important part of the army of warlord Yang Zengxin who rules the province.
A much larger group of Russians lives in Manchuria. The first wave of migration are the workers who help build the Chinese Eastern Railway. The city of Harbin is built almost from nothing to accommodate the migrants and others working on the railroad. By 1913 only one out of ten of the residents of Harbin was born there, with the overwhelming majority being Russians and Chinese who move there for work. Most buildings in the city date to this period, and there are many Orthodox churches spread across it.
Because of its established Russian community Harbin is flooded with White emigres in the 1920s. To get a sense of the influx understand that in 1913 Harbin has a population of 60,000 people. Between 1917 and 1923 almost 200,000 Russians move to the city. Many are officers and soldiers involved in the White movement, but others are intelligentsia and ordinary people. Despite signing a treaty with the Soviet Union that has served as an implicit recognition of the new Russian regime, the Chinese government continues to allow the Harbin Russian community to operate the Chinese Eastern Railway jointly with China, as well as to operate the courts, post office, police, prison, schools, and some research facilities in Harbin.
Not all Russian emigres end up in Harbin. Another attractive destination is the Shanghai international settlement where the Russian Empire maintained a consulate. Until the October Revolution the Russian population in Shanghai numbers in the dozens, but in the 1920s this number soars. When the Provisional Transamur Government in Vladivostok falls to the Bolsheviks Admiral Oscar Stark’s squadron evacuates thousands of Russians to Shanghai. In the years that follow many Russians from Harbin move to Shanghai as well, attracted by the city’s booming economy. With Shanghai a free port that requires no passport or visa to enter it is one of the few cities in the World where White Russians can find refuge.
Unfortunately, free entry does not mean economic security. Many foreigners in the international settlement scoff at employing Russians. It is English and French, not Russian, that are the universally-spoken languages here. In what is a sad chapter in Russian and Chinese history, many young Russian girls and women find work as taxi dancers and prostitutes. Over time it becomes more common for the Russian women in Shanghai to find work as French or music teachers, dressmakers, shop assistants, and hairdressers. Men, for the most part, remain as either professional soldiers or bouncers for the Shanghai gangs. Despite the difficulties this community flourishes, with Little Russia in Shanghai becoming a relatively prosperous neighborhood, full of restaurants, schools, clubs, a Russian-language newspaper and a radio station as well as an Orthodox church.
Such a large influx of Russians of course plays a role in Chinese history and politics. Already mentioned is General Ivanov and his Cossack troops in Xinjiang. White Russian soldiers also play a role in the army of Fengtian warlord Zhang Zuolin. The famous Mukden Lancers are a White Russian unit in the Fengtian army and White Russian officers, such as General Nechaev and Brigadier General Chekhov command numerous Chinese units for Zhang.
The warlord who makes the most use of the White Russian soldiers is Zhang Zongchang. He recruits effective White Russian mercenaries and even incorporates Russian armored trains into his army. A cavalry regiment of 4,600 Russians in his army is the single largest Russian unit fighting in China’s warlord wars. Also found in his forces are Russian nurses, accountants, engineers, and other professionals, all put to work alongside Chinese troops.
Interestingly, the White Russian community in Harbin also plays a role in Chinese politics more directly. The faculty at the Harbin Normal University form the Russian Fascist Organization and this fascist group plays a role in organizing and influencing the Young China Party, also based in Manchuria. The Russian fascists in Harbin have contacts with Italian and other European groups, and this is an important connection for the nascent Chinese fascist movement.
In 1925 the Baoding Military Academy is moved to Beijing and renamed the Army Officer Academy under the direction of President Cao Kun. Many Chinese and foreign officers are recruited to teach at the Academy and its graduate will play a key role in China for years to come. And, of course, the White Russians are among those playing a key role there as well.
Russia is China’s largest neighbor and although the history of Sino-Russian relations is relatively short the Russian people have had an important impact on China. In the 1910s and 1920s the history of Russian people in China has to be set against the backdrop of the political upheaval in Russia. With this in mind, here is a summary of the key role Russians played in some of the events in China during the early republican period.
First Russian settlers in China are the Jirjak people who flee the reforms of Peter the Great and settle in Xinjiang. By mid-19th century Russian merchants are common in Xinjiang and cross-border trade is robust even if there is little cross-border migration. It is not until the October Revolution that large numbers of Russians move to Xinjiang, with many Cossacks and other White Russian soldiers finding refuge there. General Ivanov and his Cossack troops become an important part of the army of warlord Yang Zengxin who rules the province.
A much larger group of Russians lives in Manchuria. The first wave of migration are the workers who help build the Chinese Eastern Railway. The city of Harbin is built almost from nothing to accommodate the migrants and others working on the railroad. By 1913 only one out of ten of the residents of Harbin was born there, with the overwhelming majority being Russians and Chinese who move there for work. Most buildings in the city date to this period, and there are many Orthodox churches spread across it.
Because of its established Russian community Harbin is flooded with White emigres in the 1920s. To get a sense of the influx understand that in 1913 Harbin has a population of 60,000 people. Between 1917 and 1923 almost 200,000 Russians move to the city. Many are officers and soldiers involved in the White movement, but others are intelligentsia and ordinary people. Despite signing a treaty with the Soviet Union that has served as an implicit recognition of the new Russian regime, the Chinese government continues to allow the Harbin Russian community to operate the Chinese Eastern Railway jointly with China, as well as to operate the courts, post office, police, prison, schools, and some research facilities in Harbin.
Not all Russian emigres end up in Harbin. Another attractive destination is the Shanghai international settlement where the Russian Empire maintained a consulate. Until the October Revolution the Russian population in Shanghai numbers in the dozens, but in the 1920s this number soars. When the Provisional Transamur Government in Vladivostok falls to the Bolsheviks Admiral Oscar Stark’s squadron evacuates thousands of Russians to Shanghai. In the years that follow many Russians from Harbin move to Shanghai as well, attracted by the city’s booming economy. With Shanghai a free port that requires no passport or visa to enter it is one of the few cities in the World where White Russians can find refuge.
Unfortunately, free entry does not mean economic security. Many foreigners in the international settlement scoff at employing Russians. It is English and French, not Russian, that are the universally-spoken languages here. In what is a sad chapter in Russian and Chinese history, many young Russian girls and women find work as taxi dancers and prostitutes. Over time it becomes more common for the Russian women in Shanghai to find work as French or music teachers, dressmakers, shop assistants, and hairdressers. Men, for the most part, remain as either professional soldiers or bouncers for the Shanghai gangs. Despite the difficulties this community flourishes, with Little Russia in Shanghai becoming a relatively prosperous neighborhood, full of restaurants, schools, clubs, a Russian-language newspaper and a radio station as well as an Orthodox church.
Such a large influx of Russians of course plays a role in Chinese history and politics. Already mentioned is General Ivanov and his Cossack troops in Xinjiang. White Russian soldiers also play a role in the army of Fengtian warlord Zhang Zuolin. The famous Mukden Lancers are a White Russian unit in the Fengtian army and White Russian officers, such as General Nechaev and Brigadier General Chekhov command numerous Chinese units for Zhang.
The warlord who makes the most use of the White Russian soldiers is Zhang Zongchang. He recruits effective White Russian mercenaries and even incorporates Russian armored trains into his army. A cavalry regiment of 4,600 Russians in his army is the single largest Russian unit fighting in China’s warlord wars. Also found in his forces are Russian nurses, accountants, engineers, and other professionals, all put to work alongside Chinese troops.
Interestingly, the White Russian community in Harbin also plays a role in Chinese politics more directly. The faculty at the Harbin Normal University form the Russian Fascist Organization and this fascist group plays a role in organizing and influencing the Young China Party, also based in Manchuria. The Russian fascists in Harbin have contacts with Italian and other European groups, and this is an important connection for the nascent Chinese fascist movement.
In 1925 the Baoding Military Academy is moved to Beijing and renamed the Army Officer Academy under the direction of President Cao Kun. Many Chinese and foreign officers are recruited to teach at the Academy and its graduate will play a key role in China for years to come. And, of course, the White Russians are among those playing a key role there as well.