II
The Blue Horde’s Early Campaigns
The Mongols’ initial contact with the Romans was certainly of a hostile nature; they raided the Mescheran princes on the way back from successful conquest of the last Kama strongholds, and in a few years attacked the Alan Tsardom. The Alan Tsardom was certainly less powerful and less independent than its title suggested, being more often seen as an extension of the domains of the Knỳtling Rurikids of Tmutarakan. The Alan capital, Magas, was perhaps a third of the size of Tmutarakan. The Alan Knỳtlings ruled over a mixed state; the nobility was of Russian and Georgian extraction, and the Ossetian speakers were the privileged nation, but the vast majority of the people were Kipchaks, Circassians, or of other Caucasian nations. Greeks, Armenians, Jews and Persians made up a high proportion of the city population and the merchant and artisan classes. If Knỳtling authority failed, the Tsardom would be easy pickings as nothing would be left to hold it together. The Mongols first sent emissaries, but the emissaries, as elsewhere, invariably demanded complete submission and were either sent away, or, more often, killed or imprisoned for such impudence, providing the Mongols with an excuse to attack. The Knỳtlings were no different. David Danilovich, the Alan Tsar, had the messengers whipped and sent back, and immediately sent to his kin, the Tmutarakan prince Yuri Dimitrievich, for assistance. Yuri agreed, despite misgivings, and himself sent a ship to Constantinople asking for help.
The Mongol attack was lead by Berke, brother of Batu Khan, rather than Batu himself. Batu was busy plotting politics against his cousin Guyuk. Berke’s army crossed the borders rapidly, much faster than the Knỳtlings expected and met the opposing forces near a small town called Ak Tobe. The Mongols, after almost a day of skirmishing, enveloped the Knỳtling force and Tsar David decided to retreat. After a hard-fought breakout, the Alan force fled beyond the Terek and started setting up a fortified camp on the southern side of the river. Berke, meanwhile, turned back, and his warriors looted the Alan lands between the Terek and the Itil. After that, he struck south, across the delta of the Terek and into Daghestan, the last remnant of the Baghratid Georgian Tsardom, which fell after a single sharp battle and two roughly week-long sieges. After that, the Mongols turned back, leaving garrison forces and fifty thousand men in their capital at Sarai. The reason for this was the great Kurultai in Karakorum following the death of Khan Guyuk, where through Batu’s influence and alliance with Tolui’s children, Mongke was elected Great Khan, and the line of Ogedei lost all influence in the Mongol government. Mongke immediately granted his brother Hulegu the overlordship of the newly-conquered Seljuk territories as Ilkhan (lesser Khan), affirmed the rights of the three Jochikhanid states to their present territories, and utterly ignored Chaghatai’s concerns over both Hulegu and Shaiban encroaching upon his western domains. Mongke then returned to fighting the Song, and, as promised, both Orda and Batu accompanied him on it. Batu would remain in Mongolia and China to the end of his life in 1255 as the Mongol-Song war turned into a dragged-out, protracted affair. Sartaq was the official ruler of the Blue Horde in Batu’s stead, while Berke wielded considerably more influence due to his age and experience. After the Kuriltai was over, Hulegu raced back to Persia, while Sartaq and Barke returned to Europe to finish what they started.
In 1244 they once again attacked the Alans, defeating the combined Tmutarakan-Trebizond-Alan army and killing Tsar David. Magas was besieged with Yuri of Tmutarakan and Alexei Davidovich of Alan both trapped inside. The city held out for three weeks, then was stormed and a great massacre took place. Although a strong fortress was later re-built at Magas, the town would never regain its former importance. As Berke pressed into remaining Alan territories, Sartaq marched on Tmutarakan. Prince Daniel Yurievich, knowing himself to be surrounded and outnumbered and wishing Tmutarakan to be spared the fate of Magas, surrendered to Sartaq. Sartaq accepted quickly without asking for much more. Prince Daniel would later become close friends with the young Khan, and was perhaps one of the reasons for the conversion of Sartaq into the Byzantine Orthodox church. Tmutarakan was the first contact of the Mongol and Imperial cultures, and its influence over the Blue Horde cannot be overestimated. This development displeased Berke very much; Berke was a devout Muslim and had no use for Christian vassals; it is unclear at what point did Berke conspire to remove Sartaq and his line from power, but that he did it in a systematic fashion seems beyond dispute. Next year, Berke lead the attack on the Berenguer Rurikoviches of Meschera himself. After a quick defeat, the Princes offered submission, but Berke would have none of it. All the nobles were killed, and their towns looted. This angered Sartaq, and he had Berke stripped of command, but Batu intervened and orchestrated a reconciliation between the two. When Batu died in 1255, Sartaq became Khan, and together with the Prince of Tmutarakan attacked Seljuk possessions in Georgia, occupying them quickly after a magnificent victory at Pankisi. He is most famous in Georgia for rebuilding churches and founding several of his own; although it must be noted that in typical early Mongol fashion he was a generous patron to the Armenian Church as well, and there are several historical Mosques and Buddhist monasteries in the Caucasus built by his leave. This war was done in coordination with Hulegu’s Ilkhanate; however, in 1256 Hulegu’s forces attacked the Byzantine Empire with whom Sartaq maintained friendly relations, and the alliance between Hulegu and Sartaq was suspended, leading to soured feelings between the two branches which would culminate in the Berke-Abaqa war of 1261-65. In 1258 Sartaq died suddenly, almost certainly poisoned by his uncle. Sartaq’s young brother Ulaghchi was elected the next Khan and died in less then a year, followed by Sartaq’s son Altyn Bayar who would also die before his 17th birthday. In 1261 Berke was made Khan of the Blue Horde, and the pro-Byzantine policies of the Sartaq years were drastically reversed.