Chapter 24 - The Perfect Storm (1570-1589)
Czar Ivan VIII
Following the breakdown of the Polish-Lithuanian Union after the assassination of Zygmunt I in 1412, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania found itself surrounded by hostile powers. Over the next 150 years, it would slowly lose territory to Muscovy, Poland, Bohemia and the Teutonic Order, until it was reduced to its homelands around Vilnius. To stave off destruction, Duke Zygimantas Kiszka appealed to the Holy Roman Emperor for protection. The Austrian Emperor Ferdinand II saw Lithuania as a potential ally in its effort to bring Royal Prussia under the Austrian crown, and readily agreed. After a vote in the Imperial Diet, the duchy was admitted to the Empire with a guarantee of independence.
Czar Ivan VIII had other plans for the Duchy. Along with the adjacent Archbishopric of Riga, he saw it as key to his goal of gaining a year-round port on the Baltic. After the delay caused by the Småland War, he began amassing forces on the Lithuanian border.
In the wake of its disastrous wars with the Ottoman Empire, the Jagiellon King Karol II of Poland cast about for a strong ally. The Austrian emperor had shown that he was ill-inclined to assist its neighbors, so he turned to the Muscovite Czar. Muscovy had triumphed repeatedly against the Ottomans and Mongol hordes, carving an empire that stretched from the Arctic Ocean to the Black Sea, from Belarussia to the Urals. Confident that the Czar’s armies would be an invincible shield, a treaty was signed between the two countries.
The Deluge – The Polish Battleground
In early 1570 Czar Ivan made his move. Muscovite armies invaded Lithuania, marching on Vilnius and Riga. Its allies Poland and Denmark were quick to declare their support for the venture. Riga quickly fell to the Czar’s forces, and the city agreed to become a fiefdom under the Muscovite crown. Lithuania, however, was not about to give in without a fight, especially with the Emperor’s support. Its armies retreated into northern Poland, sacking the countryside for supplies.
In Vienna, recently crowned Emperor Ludwig III was incensed by the news. Unlike his reluctant father, Emperor Ferdinand II, Ludwig was a young and brash ruler, eager to prove the might of the Hapsburg dynasty. He announced that the full resources of the Empire would be brought to Lithuania’s aid, and declared war on the Muscovite alliance along with his cousin, the Elector of Brandenburg. The Austrian army set out from eastern Hungary, marching northward to rendezvous with the Lithuanians. Directly between the two lay the Polish capital, Warsaw.
The Polish Battleground, 1571
Poland suddenly found itself as the frontline between two warring titans. Attempts to halt the advancing Austrian juggernaut met with repeated failure, until Karol decided to abandon the capital rather than lose his entire army. The battered Poles fell back to Lvov to reassemble their shattered forces.
At that moment, the Ottomans struck. Sultan Ahmet had been watching the ongoing conflict with interest, and believed this to be the perfect opportunity to snatch more territory from Poland while his two main adversaries were distracted. An Ottoman army marched on Lvov, and managed to surprise Karol’s recovering army. Karol’s scattered regiments put up a fanatical resistance, managing to drive back the Ottoman troops, but not before King Karol and his escort were cut down.
King Karol II at the Battle of Lvov
The Polish Sejm was thrown into disarray, with no clear successor available. Administration fell to General Sylwester Kosciuszko, a minor nobleman and a brilliant strategist. He quickly brought the Polish army back under control, and launched a bold counter-attack against the Ottoman aggressors. The Ottoman demesnes of Plock and Sieradz were quickly overrun, and the Poles began to push southward into Moldovia.
The Czar had more important matters on his mind. In December his forces fought with the combined Austrian-Lithuanian army outside Minsk, delivering a clear defeat to the Imperial forces. As the Austrians retreated, Lithuania was forced to swear allegiance to Muscovy, and the Elector of Brandenburg settled a white peace with the Czar. More interested in defeating the Hapsburgs, Ivan refused to send aid to Kosciuszko’s forces. Despite its loyalty, Poland found itself alone once more.
A Debt Repaid
In August 1572, a group of Polish envoys arrived in the Dutch court. Representing veterans of the Knights of Danzig, they appealed to King F. Hendrik for assistance on behalf of the Justifier communities in Wielkopolska. In the years since the Danzig War, the Roman Church had organized a brutal crackdown on religious dissidents within Poland with King Ludwig’s blessing. Many Polish Justifiers had been put to the test, with hundred burned at the stake and thousands fleeing to Sweden and the United Kingdom. With the chaos brought on by the Austrian invasion and Ludwig’s death at Lvov, the remaining Knights saw an opportunity to overthrow the Catholic governors of Wielkopolska and join their northern Justifier brethren.
F. Hendrik decided to honor the debt owed to those whom he had fought beside, and with the agreement of King Christian II of Sweden, moved his armies to support the uprising. Fourteen Dutch regiments were shipped to Danzig to join the 7,000 Swedes assembling in the city. While additional Swedish forces marched south to join the Polish Justifiers, the joint Swedish-Dutch army under Christian defeated a Polish attack on Danzig, and pushed the Poles back to Lublin. Still fighting the Ottomans, Kosciuszko was forced to concede Wielkopolska to the Swedes. The Knights, returning to their homes, exacted harsh revenge on the Catholic authorities that had driven them out, and much of the Catholic population fled eastward to Polish territory.
Swedish Wielkopolska
The Balkan Uprising
With his surprise attack ending in failure, Sultan Ahmet suddenly found himself under constant attack from the enraged Poles. Kosciuszko’s forces pushed south to Varna and Bucharest, until they were forced to stop due to exhaustion and poor weather. The two sides dug in along the Balkan Mountains, unable to assault the opposing positions.
In the north, the Czar’s forces chased the Austrians back into Hungary, allowing the Polish heartland to return to a modicum of peace. The Sejm poured all of its resources into Kosciuszko’s army, intent on keeping the Turks out. General Kosciuszko used the funds to erect a series of field fortifications along the Bulgarian border, to defend his hard-won territory. The Balkan stalemate stretched on into months, and then years, as the Ottomans failed again and again to retake Bulgaria. As Ahmet’s frustration grew, plots began to form behind his back across the Empire. The Sultan’s failure was a sign of weakness, and many groups that were dissatisfied with Turkish rule began to plan for independence.
The first to rebel was the treaty port of Rostock in the far north. For years the Dutch government had quietly funded a German resistance in the city, and with the Polish war its garrison had been cut off from resupply. The Germans saw their chance, and in 1575 rose up against the Turkish governor. Weeks later neighboring Lübeck followed suit, and Mecklenburg was reborn. The new republic received shipments of arms from the Netherlands and Brandenburg, ensuring that it would remain free of Ottoman rule.
In the south, the Balkans began to shake off the Sultan’s rule. Since Greece and the Balkans had been absorbed into the Empire in the early 15th century, the region had largely converted to Islam, and their inhabitants accepted into the Ottoman Millet. With acceptance came increased rights and autonomy, and many regions were ruled by local governors. However, with the setbacks suffered by Osman II and his son Ahmet, and the increasing demands for levies and taxes to fuel the war effort, the regional governors decided to rebel against Constantinople.
With the success of Mecklenburg, Demetrios Bey of Achaea led western Greece into revolt, claiming the heritage of Byzantine Greece. He was quickly followed by the governors of Serbo-Bosnia and Bulgaria. In addition, the Orthodox nobility of Wallachia declared independence, with the help of neighboring Transylvania. Several non-Turkish generals defected to the new kingdoms, taking their troops with them.
Suddenly finding his armies turned against him, Ahmet had no choice but to end the Polish campaign. He abandoned his claims to the Polish territory his father had won, and turned to deal with his traitorous governors. However, even with the Polish threat ended, Ahmet was unable to defeat the Balkan kingdoms, and his remaining loyal armies were driven from Europe. He soon lost control of the entire peninsula, save for Constantinople. As unrest grew in the Turkish homelands of Anatolia, the Sultan was forced to concede, and the new kingdoms were allowed independence.
A New Balkans, 1589
Hapsburgs in Defeat
While Poland was out of the war, the forces of the Czar continued to rampage over Austria for five more years. Many Muscovite commanders simply stopped listening to commands from Moscow, and marched across the countryside at random, pillaging and looting. Emperor Ludwig was able to protect the regions around the capital, but his Bohemian and Hungarian territories were repeatedly put to the torch. Only after the resources of the eastern provinces were depleted were the Muscovite hordes forced to leave. The war ended inconclusively in 1578, but the Austrian Emperor’s failure to protect his Baltic constituents left him in disgrace. At the next Imperial Diet, the Electors decided to give the Imperial Crown to King Maximilian of Great Britain.
End of Part V
Next – Intermission, and the End of an Era