On Religion and Secularism in Iberia until 1350 AD
It is impossible to place the philosophical developments in Arabic Iberia in context without knowledge of the great philosopher
Ibn Rushd (1126-1198), known in Western circles as Averroës. Arguably the most important pre-Renaissance Iberian thinker, Ibn Rushd is known in wider circles as the founding father of secular thought in Western Europe. Ibn Rushd's translations of Aristotle and his reconciliation of those works with Islam form the basis of his later work, in which he advocates the emancipation of science and philosophy from theology, thus breaking the religious monopoly on metaphysical truth-finding. This concept first diffused throughout Muslim Iberia, though it did not achieve wide-spread popularity. Several factors served to bring greater secularism into the political reality of Iberian society in the first decades of the 14th century, where before Muslim dogmatism, already more flexible than contemporary Christianity, was the leading school of thought.
Iberia was never a stranger to different religions. Jewish presence in Iberia dates to before the Roman Empire; with that Roman Empire came Catholicism, though it never took root strongly enough to become dominant, in part due to Visigothic and Vandal invasions, bringing their own Pagan religions. Through the succession of governing bodies of Iberia in the first millenium, life remained relatively good for Iberian Jews, until the conversion of the Visigoths to Catholicism in the 7th century. With Muslim conquest of the South in 711 another religion was added to the mix, stopping short any chance of Catholic domination, and preventing the Jews from persecution. During the golden age of the Caliphate of Córdoba, the three religious groups coexisted in harmony under Islamic overlordship. Catholic power increased again with conquests of Islamic taifas the by the small Northern kingdoms in the Time of Troubles, until most of Iberia was united under the rule of Barakat Dhu'l Nun (1098-1174) following the Treaty of Milan in 1169 (also known as the Fiat). The result of this treaty was a tolerant Islamic government ruling over Iberia, including a significant amount of provinces inhabited by a Catholic majority. The result of all this religious intermingling taught the Iberian people that there are more versions of the truth. Ibn Rushd formalized exactly that sentiment in his works.
When Usama Dhu'l Nun (1227-1271) succeeded his grandfather Da'ud (1187-1254) to the throne as Sultan of Al-Andalus, the long-standing Fatimid Shi'ite influence on the religion of the Iberian peninsula finally found expression. Usama issued decrees declaring all Al-Andalus Shi'ite, a stance that ruffled feathers among the mostly Sunni elite as well as among Dhimmi craftsmen and traders. Unable to unite in opposition under the banner of a single religion due to religious disunity, they embraced the works of Ibn Rushd and advocated lessening of any religious influence on everyday life as well as politics. Things came to a head in 1279 when Sultan Mansur Dhu'l Nun (1257-1279), devout Shi'ite and fervent proponent of Usama's decrees, died under mysterious circumstances* and was succeeded by his brother, Sa'id (1258-1301), a simple and practical man with little interest in religion. Under influence of the Andalusian nobility he allowed the courtly power of the imams to wane, and when his son Hakam (1276-1320) returned from time spent at the Bavarian court he was allowed to remain Christian, as he had converted while spending time there. The second change of rulers' religion in a short period further cemented the cause of Averroism among the elite as well as to populace, causing widespread acceptance of a divide between church and state. Hakam's 1312 decree stipulating that every man is free to choose his own religion effectively made Al-Andalus the first truly secular state in Western Europe.
* Official contemporary sources state he died of a mysterious illness in only two days. In view of the medical evidence this is extremely unlikely. Personal correspondence of those close to him reveal him as a deeply troubled man, torn between his temporal responsibilities and his especially strict interpretation of Shi'a Islam.