The Rise and Fall of the Roman Republic

Chapter XXX - The 2nd Punic War (96 - 95 BC)

A. Reflections

Before taking a look at the events of the 2nd Punic War, it is interesting to focus on the general strategy of the Roman Republic. In 100 BC, it was the hegemonic power on the European continent with three possible choices for further expansions.

The Republic could have crossed its own artificial border along the Rhine and Danube to secure Germania or Dacia. Especially advancing to the northeast had been an alternative, since the Kingdom of Rhoxolani had pushed westwards along the coast of the Black Sea and reached the Danube Delta, thus sharing a common border with the Republic. In the east were the old and wealthy cities of Greece and Asia Minor, who had established a network of Alliances, that could threat even the large roman power. Finally to the south was Carthage, despite the continuing decline during the last decades still a major power and trading center in the western Mediterranean, that controlled the African shores as well as Corsica and Sardinia.

We may assume, that there have been major debates about the direction of further conquests, but as it seems, neither faction in the Senate could gain an advantage to enforce and maintain its agenda, so the main area of Rome`s military operations switched from the west to the east and back(142).

Another interesting fact is, that Rome didn`t try to establish a valid casus belli in this case. In 97 BC, an envoy travelled to Carthage to offer the Carthaginian Senate to buy Corsica and Sardinia for the exceptional sum of 5.000 attic Talents of Silver(143). It is disputed, if this offer was serious. Some authors point out, that Rome had to expect, that Carthage would deny it, so it could make an issue of Carthage`s lack of cooperation. But most historians tend to believe, that Rome indeed tried to come to an agreement, since the offered price was appropriate.

Whatever Rome`s intentions were, the Carthaginian Senate denied its offer and Rome declared war in early 96 BC.

B. Corsica and Sardinia

The XIII. Legion was delegated to seize these two islands. By April 96 BC, Corsica was conquered and the Legion was transferred to Sardinia. The following siege, that lasted for almost nine months, was of little interest beside the fact, that the whole island was struck by an epidemic plague, that decimated both besieger as besieged. When Caralis(144) opened its gates in late 96 BC, the XIII. Legion had probably lost 50% of its strength(145).

The most important events around Sardinia were the naval operations of both parties. Although the Carthaginian fleet was outnumbered from the start, its commander skillfully maneuvered his vessels through the Tyrrhenian Sea, sinking a few roman ships. But finally Rome gathered his fleets and Decius Tiberius Brutus, one of the few roman naval commanders known by name, managed to engage the Carthaginian fleet in the battle of Cap Pintonus.

Sempronius describes the scene, when the Carthaginian commander was stuck in an unfavorable position with the Sardinian coastline in his back and the roman fleet to the front. According to Sempronius, the roman fleet consisted of 180 Triremes, while their opponents had about half the amount. In an early stage of the battle, Decius Tiberius could break up the enemy formation on their left flank and then rolled up the whole Carthaginian line. Most ships were sunk or stranded when trying to escape. With this victory, the Carthaginian fleet ceased to exist and Rome was the undisputed ruler of the sea.

C. Iberia and North Africa

In the west, the Carthaginian commander Bomilcar took the initiative and crossed the Strait of Gibraltar, although he had no fleet at his disposal. His opponent was Manius Tiberius Brutus, long-term Governor of Baetica and skilled tactician.

Tiberius had two Legions and about 50 ships under his command. When he received message, that Carthage was gathering troops in northern Africa, he let his fleet leave the harbor and sail to the east to delude Bomilcar, who took the bait. In spring 96 BC, his forces landed near today`s Algeciras and marched towards Gadira. Now Tiberius let the trap snap shut. His fleet returned and cut Bomilcar`s line of retreat, while simultaneously Tiberius` second Legion arrived. In a fierce, but desperate battle, Bomilcar`s army was destroyed and Carthage`s holdings in North Africa exposed.

Tiberius immediately dispatched Marcus Fabius with the IX. Legion to cross the strait and seize Carthaginian territory. Within the next three months, Fabius conquered Tingis, Mogador and Massaesyli(146). In late 96 BC, Fabius learned about a large approaching Army from Carthage. Considering his overstretched supply lines he decided to retreat to Tinigis. He had to fight two battles against the fast advancing Carthaginians, but made it back to Tinigs in order.

Fig. 35: Carthage during the 2nd Punic War​

D. End of the conflict

About the same time, when Fabius arrived in Tingis and the situation seemed to turn to Carthage`s favor, Rome conducted a daring operation. In early 95 BC, a large roman fleet arrived near Carthage and disembarked an Army consisting of the VI. and the remnants of the XIII. Legion. Carthage`s troops stationed near the capital were beaten and forced to retreat, while the roman commander Publius Sempronius Sophus(147) began to siege Carthage itself.

This event and the lost battle right in front of the city gates shocked the population, and according to Sempronius it came to panic and tumult within the city. The people were horrified and forced the Senate to immediately open negotiations. In late spring 95 BC, Rome and Carthage signed a peace treaty, that ceded Corsica and Tingis to the Roman Republic.

E. Results

Most authors come to the conclusion, that the 2nd Punic War was a display of total roman superiority. This was a result of the fact, that Rome obviously outnumbered Carthage by far. Secondly the War showed, that Rome`s commanders outclassed their Carthaginian opponents, as Tiberius` and Sempronius` operations prove.

It is still questionable, if these new and exceptional tactics were a result of an "evolution" of roman warfare due to the experience of two Centuries of expansionism, or if these operations were a simple consequence of Rome`s numerical superiority, so that Rome could afford to take risks. Especially Fabius` campaign in North Africa, that lead to vast conquests he could not keep due to issues with his logistics support the second theory.

But nevertheless Rome had once again defeated his southern rival. And the facts, that Rome seized his first holding on African soil and appointed Manius Tiberius Brutus to be the first Governor of the new Region of Mauretania, were a sure sign for further hostilities.


(142) This is one of the current theories, that`s advocated by Taylor, Kennedy and other Anglo-American historians. The "European School", among them Vogondy, D`Anunzio and Willemsen, express the opinion, that Rome had no focus at all besides expansionism per se and was looking for targets of opportunity. The debate at the Lisbon-Conference in 2003 lead to no consensus.
(143) 180 Tons with a today`s market value of about 150 Million Euro.
(144) Today Cagliari
(145) In his book "The Punic Wars" Enrico D`Anunzio estimates the roman losses to be even about 70%, but there is no evidence for that. He also tried to verify the epidemic that struck both forces according to the few descriptions by Sempronius and comes to the conclusion, that it had been probably Typhoid fever.
(146) Tingis is today`s Tanger. Mogador is actually the Portuguese name for the Carthaginian trading colony of Migdol, that is now called Essaouira. The Massaesyli were still a largely nomadic nation. Although there must have been a central settlement, it couldn`t be verified so far.
(147) Not to be confused with the historian Publius Sempronius Sophus (4 - 72 AD), our best source for the 1st Century BC.

Enewald said:

Is Carthage really worth fighting, or is the only challenge?

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Let me put it this way: Due to the Alliances in the east I`d have to fight Egypt, Seleucia, Pontus, Armenia and Macedonia at the same time, if I attack any of them. So I`ll just wait and bully Carthage until Egypt and Seleucia break their alliance.

EDIT:

Tingis is important. I have lots of military geniuses as Governors, who usually command the troops, but only crap for Generals, with the best being Mil 4 (sic!). But now I have a foothold and a Mil 9 Governor in Mauretania, that consists of yet another five Provinces to conquer.

loki100 said:

seems like you've weakened Carthage to the point where you can wail on them as you wish, picking up more and more provinces each time. As to the east, sounds prudent to wait for the inevitable Egypt-Syria stushie and then pick on the losers?

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Divide et impera is our motto for a reason.

CRATON BiH said:

Updates coming ?

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Tomorrow.

Chapter XXXI - Excursus II: Celtic culture in western Europe (800 - 90 BC)

A. Origin, spreading and terminology

First of all the Celts(148) were not a unified nation, but merely a number of tribes with similar cultural characteristics. It is still problematic to define, if a certain tribe was Celtic due to the different present definitions. These definitions are either linguistic (Celtic was a branch of the Indo-European languages), archaeologic (findings of similar ceramics, fibula etc.) or ethnologic (similarities in religious beliefs, funeral rites etc), and according to the current state of knowledge not all of these three definitions apply in all cases.

The so-called Celtic culture appears in the beginning of the European Iron Age around 800 BC and mainly spread from France in the west to Hungary in the east.

B. Early stages (800 - 475 BC)

The first period of Celtic history is designated as Hallstatt-culture(149). It is divided into four periods (A-D). While Hallstatt A-B still belongs to the Bronze Age and begins roughly around 1.200 BC, the Hallstatt culture, that is designated as "Celtic", starts with Hallstatt C, since several essential changes occur during this period.

First of all the usage of Bronze was replaced by Iron. Funeral rites changed from cremation to inhumation and the erection of tumuli. Trade routes connected the Celtic tribes with the civilizations in southern Europe according to findings of Greek ceramics and wine amphorae, and maybe even with the steppe to the east(150).

Finally a degree of hierarchization can be assumed due to findings of opulent princely tombs(151). Undisputed is the existence of so-called "princely residences". Problematic is the assignment. Although Wolfgang Kimmig defined three criteria, these admit wide interpretations.

C. Golden age (475 - 200 BC)

In the beginning of the 5th Century BC, the Hallstatt culture is succeeded by the La Tène culture(152). The "early" La Tène (5th and early 4th century) sees several slow changes in ceramics (imitation of Mediterranean ceramics and development to an independent style) and funeral rites (flat graves).

Around 400 BC begins the era of Celtic migrations to southern Europe and Asia Minor. In northern Italy, they colonized the Po Plain and attacked Rome. In the early 3rd Century BC they invaded Greece, Macedonia and Asia Minor and established own countries, especially Tylis (280 - 191 BC) and Galatia in today`s central Turkey (211 - 178 BC). During their stay in these areas, the Celts came in contact with a developed urban culture, what became crucial during the era of remigration, that started in the early 3rd Century BC, when Rome expanded into the Po Plain and drove out several Celtic tribes.

It is probable, that these tribes, that migrated back to France, Germany, Austria and Hungary were responsible for the next step in Celtic development. Characteristic for the late La Tène is the establishment of so-called Oppida(153). These settlements consisted of up to a few thousand inhabitants, had basic fortifications, specialization and signs of a monetary economy(154).

At the beginning of the 2nd Century BC, the Celts were at the edge of a high culture, although they still lacked an own script.

D. Iberia and Britannia

Two peripheral areas of the Celtic cultural sphere were northern Iberia and southern Britannia.

In northern and central Iberia lived the so-called Celtiberians. It is still disputed, if these tribes were Celts, that immigrated to Iberia during the 6th Century BC and mixed up with the local tribes, or if they were mostly Iberians who adopted parts of the Celtic culture. Evidently there have been connections, since findings revealed items belonging to the Hallstatt culture.

The tribes in southern Britannia were probably not immigrated Celts from continental Europe, but Celts by choice, who exchanged their own language and culture with the Celtic.

E. Decline and extinction (218 - 90 BC)

The reason for the development of Celtic culture during the late La Tène was also the reason for its downfall: The roman expansion. In the first half of the 3rd Century they colonized the Po Plain and some Celtic tribes migrated to areas beyond the Alps.

With the beginning of the transalpine conquests in 218 BC, the slow decline of the Celtic culture began. During the 2nd Century BC, nearly the whole Celtic cultural Sphere was seized and assimilated by the Romans.

It is remarkable, that the same tribes, who fought against the Romans, accommodated themselves very fast. Authors point out, that this was due to the fact, that the roman conquest and the spread of its civilization were embraced by the local nobility. Rome used former Celtic leaders as administrators of their new territories, so their living standard, that already included amounts of roman goods, was maintained or even improved. Ordinary Celts joined the Legions and came back as latin speaking citizens. Thus, the Celtic culture and language vanished rather quickly, while the Celtic religion, mixed with roman beliefs, was probably the part of Celtic identity, that survived longest.

The end of the Celtic culture came around 100 BC. In the year 103 BC, the defeat of the Senones destroyed the last independent Celtic country in Gaul. In 90 BC the colonization of the area around today`s city of Brage in northern Portugal completed the roman seizure of the Iberian Peninsula. At the same time, the whole south of Britannia was already conquered by the roman Legions.

F. Legacy

What is left of the Celts? The short answer is: Almost nothing, besides small remnants of Celtic languages, especially on the British Isles.

Nevertheless, there has been an urge or even a desire by the west European countries since the 19th century to establish the Celts(155) as forefathers of their own cultural and national identity, that lead to more or less vast falsifications or deliberate misinterpretations of history. In modern times, with a population turning away from Christianity, some people`s search for authenticity (or maybe just a less rigid belief) leads to a rediscovery of Celtic culture.

In spite of that, this adoption of Celtic features (such as "Tribal" tattoos or modern druids) is not authentic Celtic, but more of a ethno-cultural or even ethno-religious tourism for the sake of individual happiness. People interested in the real, authentic Celts have to continue visiting the museums.


(148) The word descends from Latin "celtael galli" and the Greek "keltoil galatai" and probably means something like "the brave" or "the noble".
(149) Named after large findings in a burial site along the Lake Hallstatt in Austria in 1846.
(150) Massilia and the Rhone river were important trade routes for Greek goods. Findings of certain types of daggers and snaffles indicate connections to the east.
(151) As in Hochdorf (Baden-Württemberg/Germany) and Vix (Bourgogne/France)
(152) Named after the findings at La Tène along Lake Neuchatel in Switzerland.
(153) From the Latin word Oppidum, that means "small city"
(154) Imitations of Roman and Greek coins.
(155) Respectively the Teutons in Germany

Enewald said:

Galatians?

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Correct

Enewald said:

I mean have the vanished already in the game? And is the culture of Galatia still Celtic?
How stupid do you think I am?

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Well, it`s always a little bit difficult to extrapolate from a single word to the correct question.

And no. The culture / religion of Galatia has never been celtic in the game (Phrygian/Greek). But the fact, that is was independent for a short time, matched great with RL-history. Lucky me.

Chapter XXXII - The 3rd Punic War (88 BC)

A. Causes

"In the second year of the Consulate of Publius Cornelius Rufinus, the expansion of the harbor in Ostia was accomplished. Along with this enterprise several other ports around the western Mediterranean were founded or extended. In this year, more ships and goods were transported to and from Ostia as in any other year before. The vast storehouses could barely hold the Sicilian grain, Gaul wine and Iberian iron. Rome enjoyed it`s prosperity and peace, until news of Carthaginian infringements reached the Senate."(156)

Although Sempronius painted a picture of peace and prosperity in order to establish a proper drop height to the sudden Carthaginian threat, we may assume, that his description was more or less correct.

Publius Cornelius Rufinus and his two predecessors as Consuls were representatives of the merchant faction and had encouraged investments to increase the maritime trade, who came to fruition. In late 89 BC, reports from attacked or lost ships in the Tyrrhenian Sea and its approaches seem to have gone up.

Carthage came immediately under suspicion. In Carthage, the current Suffet was Mago Ahiromid, a man in his fifties, that is described as stubborn and sometimes cruel not only in roman sources. More interestingly, Mago was born on Sardinia and his power basis was still there. We can`t be sure about his intentions, but most authors point out, that the outcome of the 2nd Punic War, when Rome expanded to Corsica and North Africa, and the increasing amount of roman merchant shipping threatened his personal holdings as well as the existence of Carthage per se.

A rather revealing fact is, that, when the occurrences in the Tyrrhenian Sea became more and more frequent, Rome made no try to negotiate with Carthage and immediately declared war in early 88 BC.

B. Progress

The 3rd Punic War, that lasted only one year, was dominated by the Republic from the start. Servius Tiberius Brutus, Governor of Corsica, landed on Sardinia and destroyed a Carthaginian force of about 20.000 soldiers in a single battle(157).

Meanwhile, Manius Tiberius Brutus started the campaign with the IV. and IX. Legion in Tingis. During the next months, he drove two Carthage armies out of northwestern Africa and seized Mauretania, Rusadir, Massaesyli and Taladusi.

In autumn 88 BC, when Caralis had surrendered after a siege of about four months, the VI. and XIII. Legion appeared south of Carthage. Within the next weeks, this force seized Thapsus and Theveste(158). Probably in November 88 BC, Manius Tiberius Brutus conquered Cartenae(159) in the region of Ikosim.

Fig. 36: Central and West Carthage during the 3rd Punic War​

The strategic situation of Carthage became desperate, although it still had large forces at hand. Nevertheless it accepted a peace and ceded Sardinia and Rusadir to Rome.

C. Results

It is still disputed among historians, if Mago really wanted to provoke a war with Rome in order to regain some lost ground. If so, it was a foolish move(160).

The deployment of the Carthaginian troops all over its territory, the obvious lack of a powerful navy(161) and the incapability of the Carthaginian commanders contributed to the fact, that Rome never lost the initiative.

A more interesting question is, why Rome stopped its advance and settled for another peace, that was rather favorable for Carthage. One part of the answer might be, that the Roman Legions had to operate far away from their supply bases. Estimations are, that Rome lost up to 25.000 men in battle and another 15.000 due to hunger, heat and illness. Another contributing factor must have been, that the Carthaginian forces were beaten, but not destroyed and could easily receive reinforcements from the eastern territories.

After all it seems to be, that one result of the 3rd Punic War might have been, that Rome finally realized, that Carthage will be at least a nuisance factor as long as it exists. If the Senate agreed to a long-term strategy to destroy Carthage at this point of time is not evidenced, but shortly after the end of the war, written records point to the deployment of a new Legion in Tingis(162) .


(156) Sempronius, "Annales romanum", Vol. XII
(157) Many authors consider the deployment of such a large force to Sardinia, that had only a small garrison in Caralis so far, as another sign for Mago`s plan to start a war, while others point out, that this was a merely defensive measure to counter roman expansionism.
(158) Thapsus was abandoned as a result of the climate change in northern Africa. The last remains are some ruins near the city of Bekalta and a Titular Bishopric in the roman-catholic church. Theveste (today Tebessa) still exists as the capital of the same-titled Algerian Province.
(159) Another ruined city in today`s northern Algeria, that remains in memory as the Titular Bishopric of Cartenna only.
(160) Another theory established by Hanson in his book "The fall of Qart-Hadasht" was, that Mago indeed wanted this war, but had no support for it in the Carthaginian Senate, so he started the provocations in the Tyrrhenian Sea in order to let Rome make the first step and present his own Senate with a fait accompli.
(161) Carthage probably had not more than 20 Triremes available. The catastrophic fate of its Army on Sardinia was as well a result of the defeat in battle as the inability to evacuate it via sea.
(162) The Legio XVII Fulminata

Warluster said:

It kind of feels like Carthage is the side dish before the main meal - the Egypt Seleucid mega alliance!

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Well, time is running out for me (its 77 BC, so only 50 years left) as well as Carthage (don`t think they`ll survive the game).

The East is difficult, because the AI is a bit weird. There is a two-province-minor: Osroene. Egypt and Seleucia are allied and declared war. And for decades now Egypt occupies one province and Seleucia the other, but no peace is signed. And as long there is no peace, they don`t start a new war. The same goes for Colchis (occupied by Macedonia/Pontus).

Hopefully there will be some unrest, since their Stability is down the drain due to the long wars. Seleucia already lost lots of Provinces in Parthia due to independence movements.

Chapter XXXIII - The 4th Punic War (80 - 78 BC)

A. Cause

"Ceterum censeo Carthaginam esse delendam"(163)

Cato, one of the leading representatives of the traditionalist part of the Senators, was a living example of roman virtues: Moral, valiant, modest. Steeped in the conviction, that Rome and its lifestyle is superior to all others and may not tolerate any rival. And if there was something he loathed more than the bias for Greek culture of some of his fellow Senators, it was Carthage.

One could say, that Cato represented the fundamental difference between these two cities. Landowner versus Merchant, Traditionalism versus Openness. Of course these contrasts are a simplification of the actual events and conditions. But at least it should be allowed to state, that there was a difference between Rome and Carthage besides the rivalry for supremacy, that Cato and his henchman didn`t want to understand and even outright hated, since it was a Divergence from anything they held dear.

Thus it is not surprising, that he thought, that a great war between Rome and Carthage for supremacy, that would extinct one of the two people, was inevitable. Although we have no written evidence, we may assume, that Cato was pleased to see, when Tiberius started his campaign in 180 BC. Even more so at the outbreak of the first Punic War 152 BC, that ended shortly before his death.

Maybe he had been less delighted by the way the following struggles with Carthage progressed. Undoubtedly Rome`s victories over her rival were uncontested, but also halfhearted, since the peace conditions were generous. Even the 3rd Punic War was limited in terms of occupied and later seized territory. This changed with the 4th Punic War, making it the most described of all Punic Wars.

It began in early 80 BC without a declaration of war, indicating the change of the Senate`s stance toward the southern rival.

B. One year of struggles (80 BC)

Rome deployed massive troops for this enterprise and started an attack with three directions. The two "African" Legions (IX. + XVII.) were reinforced by the IV. and XII. Legion from Iberia and put under the command of Manius Tiberius Brutus(164) in order to advance from Tingis and Rusadir eastward. The VI. and XIII. Legion from Sicily and Sardinia were assigned to Caelus Fabius Gurges in order to land in the Carthaginian heartland. Finally, the XV. Legion from Crete under Spurius Fabius Gurges(165) landed in the Gulf of Sydra to seize Carthage`s holdings in the east.

The campaign began in Mauretania with an event, that is often discussed. According to Sempronius, Manius Tiberius arrived there with his two Legions and faced a Carthaginian force of Iberian and Numidian mercenaries of about half the size of his own force. Tiberius then negotiated with the enemy commander with the result, that they surrendered. They were allowed to return home under the condition, that they submit their weapons and don`t raise arms against the Republic again. It is disputed, how much of this is true, but most authors tend to believe, that the Carthaginian force indeed surrendered without even trying to force their way back to the east or hinder Tiberius` movements(166) .

Until the middle of the year, Rome faced no serious opposition, since Carthage concentrated its forces in today`s Tunesia. Thus, Tiberius marched east and seized Mauretania, Massaesyli and Taladusii on its way. In mid-summer, he forced another enemy Army to retreat after a small battle in the vicinity of today`s Sètif.

Meanwhile, Caelus Fabius landed near Thapsus with his two Legions and seized the city in a surprising assault. Shortly after, he was confronted by a Carthaginian army of maybe 25.000 to 30.000 soldiers. A first skirmish ended with a roman victory and substantial losses for the Carthaginians, who retreated to the southeast. At Ricda(167) , it came to a second battle, that literally destroyed the Carthaginian force.

For the next months, there was a stalemate, when Rome tried to occupy more territory while the remnants of the Carthaginian force tried to outmaneuver the Romans and fight a battle on favorable ground. Probably in early October, Tiberius arrived at Hippo Regius(168) and encountered a small Carthaginian army, that retreated after a skirmish.

At the same time, Caelus Fabius engaged Carthage in the battle of Hamada(169). Caelus outnumbered his opponents about 2:1. The Carthaginian commander fielded a vast amount of war elephants, that should crush the roman center. But the Legionaries had already learned about the weaknesses of these behemoths, thus the assault came to nothing. The roman cavalry had outflanked the Carthaginian force in the meantime. In the following encirclement battle, Carthage lost another Army of about 20.000 men.

When the year 80 BC was over, Rome had achieved most of its goals. The Carthaginian armies were more or less destroyed and vast amounts of enemy territory occupied. Only Spurius Fabius Gurges had no success to show except the capture of Leptis Magna(170).

Fig. 37: Carthage during the 4th Punic War​

C. End of the conflict (79 - 78 BC)

When the Legions left their winter camps in early 79 BC, most parts of Tunesia and Tripolitania were still under Carthaginian control and the Carthaginian Senate not willing to sign a peace. But during the first half of the year, Theveste and Hippo Regius were captured. In late summer, the last remaining nameable Punic force of about 15.000 man surrendered after a decisive battle to the west of Oea. At the end of the year, Carthage`s territory was occupied besides Oea, Sabrata and Carthage itself.

It took almost another year, until the last Tripolitanian cities surrendered to Rome. The Carthaginian Senate, standing with the back to the wall, agreed to cede Mauretania, Ikosim and Hippo Regius to Rome.

Fig. 38: Carthage after the 4th Punic War​

D. Results

"The 4th Punic War was Carthage`s death knell. The complete destruction of the Carthaginian land and naval forces indicated, that Rome had decided, that Carthage had lost its right to exist. The amount of troops and the consequent occupation of almost all Punic territories were clear signs, that Rome`s policy had changed from confrontation to extinction."(171)

This war was one of the bloodiest in roman history. Carthaginian casualties are estimated to about 80.000 - 90.000 soldiers. While Rome lost maybe just 15.000 soldiers in battle, it is believed, that its casualties exceeded the Carthaginian due to climate impacts and disease(172).

The price for these efforts was Hippo Regius. By capturing this city, Rome intruded into the densely populated heartland of Carthage. With this population and trade center lost, Carthage`s ability to raise troops and funds was severely reduced.

"This was not the end, but the beginning of the end. Rome continued to harass Carthage, sometimes fabricating a casus belli, sometimes not, until it was finally wiped from the face of the earth."(173)


(163) "Furthermore I think Carthage must be destroyed"; Marcus Portius Cato (234 - 149 BC). The attribution of this quote is unsure. Plutarch, who lived two centuries later, is our only source.
(164) After his death in early 79 BC, Publius Valerius Falto took command of the four Legions.
(165) Caelus Fabius Gurges was already about 70 years old, when taking command. This and the fact, that he was the leader of the merchant`s faction is considered as a sign, that this war had the support of the whole Senate. Spurius Fabius Gurges, the commander of the XV. Legion, was his oldest son.
(166) Hanson assumes, that Carthage was in default in paying its troops, so the Mercenaries saw no need to risk their lives. But this is just a theory among others.
(167) Today Riqdalin in western Libya
(168) Today Annaba
(169) Today Hamadat al Kebalou in central Tunesia
(170) Along with Oea and Sabratha, Leptis Magna was one of three major cities in Tripolitania. It was abandoned in the second half of the 7th century, when the Arabs conquered north Africa and established Oea (Tripolis) as regional capital.
(171) Stuart T. Hanson, "The fall of Qart-Hadasht"; 1983
(172) Mass graves found outside of Tripolis indicate, that the Legionaries suffered from epidemics and malnutrition.
(173) see note 171

loki100 said:

like the way you're mixing up historic dynamics with the game events. Anyway you can carry on feasting on Carthage till the Seluecid situation becomes more favourable and a bit more 'lucid'?

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This. Carthage will be destroyed within the next decades and I hope for some targets in the east, maybe due to civil wars.