Chapter XXX - The 2nd Punic War (96 - 95 BC)
A. Reflections
Before taking a look at the events of the 2nd Punic War, it is interesting to focus on the general strategy of the Roman Republic. In 100 BC, it was the hegemonic power on the European continent with three possible choices for further expansions.
The Republic could have crossed its own artificial border along the Rhine and Danube to secure Germania or Dacia. Especially advancing to the northeast had been an alternative, since the Kingdom of Rhoxolani had pushed westwards along the coast of the Black Sea and reached the Danube Delta, thus sharing a common border with the Republic. In the east were the old and wealthy cities of Greece and Asia Minor, who had established a network of Alliances, that could threat even the large roman power. Finally to the south was Carthage, despite the continuing decline during the last decades still a major power and trading center in the western Mediterranean, that controlled the African shores as well as Corsica and Sardinia.
We may assume, that there have been major debates about the direction of further conquests, but as it seems, neither faction in the Senate could gain an advantage to enforce and maintain its agenda, so the main area of Rome`s military operations switched from the west to the east and back(142).
Another interesting fact is, that Rome didn`t try to establish a valid casus belli in this case. In 97 BC, an envoy travelled to Carthage to offer the Carthaginian Senate to buy Corsica and Sardinia for the exceptional sum of 5.000 attic Talents of Silver(143). It is disputed, if this offer was serious. Some authors point out, that Rome had to expect, that Carthage would deny it, so it could make an issue of Carthage`s lack of cooperation. But most historians tend to believe, that Rome indeed tried to come to an agreement, since the offered price was appropriate.
Whatever Rome`s intentions were, the Carthaginian Senate denied its offer and Rome declared war in early 96 BC.
B. Corsica and Sardinia
The XIII. Legion was delegated to seize these two islands. By April 96 BC, Corsica was conquered and the Legion was transferred to Sardinia. The following siege, that lasted for almost nine months, was of little interest beside the fact, that the whole island was struck by an epidemic plague, that decimated both besieger as besieged. When Caralis(144) opened its gates in late 96 BC, the XIII. Legion had probably lost 50% of its strength(145).
The most important events around Sardinia were the naval operations of both parties. Although the Carthaginian fleet was outnumbered from the start, its commander skillfully maneuvered his vessels through the Tyrrhenian Sea, sinking a few roman ships. But finally Rome gathered his fleets and Decius Tiberius Brutus, one of the few roman naval commanders known by name, managed to engage the Carthaginian fleet in the battle of Cap Pintonus.
Sempronius describes the scene, when the Carthaginian commander was stuck in an unfavorable position with the Sardinian coastline in his back and the roman fleet to the front. According to Sempronius, the roman fleet consisted of 180 Triremes, while their opponents had about half the amount. In an early stage of the battle, Decius Tiberius could break up the enemy formation on their left flank and then rolled up the whole Carthaginian line. Most ships were sunk or stranded when trying to escape. With this victory, the Carthaginian fleet ceased to exist and Rome was the undisputed ruler of the sea.
C. Iberia and North Africa
In the west, the Carthaginian commander Bomilcar took the initiative and crossed the Strait of Gibraltar, although he had no fleet at his disposal. His opponent was Manius Tiberius Brutus, long-term Governor of Baetica and skilled tactician.
Tiberius had two Legions and about 50 ships under his command. When he received message, that Carthage was gathering troops in northern Africa, he let his fleet leave the harbor and sail to the east to delude Bomilcar, who took the bait. In spring 96 BC, his forces landed near today`s Algeciras and marched towards Gadira. Now Tiberius let the trap snap shut. His fleet returned and cut Bomilcar`s line of retreat, while simultaneously Tiberius` second Legion arrived. In a fierce, but desperate battle, Bomilcar`s army was destroyed and Carthage`s holdings in North Africa exposed.
Tiberius immediately dispatched Marcus Fabius with the IX. Legion to cross the strait and seize Carthaginian territory. Within the next three months, Fabius conquered Tingis, Mogador and Massaesyli(146). In late 96 BC, Fabius learned about a large approaching Army from Carthage. Considering his overstretched supply lines he decided to retreat to Tinigis. He had to fight two battles against the fast advancing Carthaginians, but made it back to Tinigs in order.
D. End of the conflict
About the same time, when Fabius arrived in Tingis and the situation seemed to turn to Carthage`s favor, Rome conducted a daring operation. In early 95 BC, a large roman fleet arrived near Carthage and disembarked an Army consisting of the VI. and the remnants of the XIII. Legion. Carthage`s troops stationed near the capital were beaten and forced to retreat, while the roman commander Publius Sempronius Sophus(147) began to siege Carthage itself.
This event and the lost battle right in front of the city gates shocked the population, and according to Sempronius it came to panic and tumult within the city. The people were horrified and forced the Senate to immediately open negotiations. In late spring 95 BC, Rome and Carthage signed a peace treaty, that ceded Corsica and Tingis to the Roman Republic.
E. Results
Most authors come to the conclusion, that the 2nd Punic War was a display of total roman superiority. This was a result of the fact, that Rome obviously outnumbered Carthage by far. Secondly the War showed, that Rome`s commanders outclassed their Carthaginian opponents, as Tiberius` and Sempronius` operations prove.
It is still questionable, if these new and exceptional tactics were a result of an "evolution" of roman warfare due to the experience of two Centuries of expansionism, or if these operations were a simple consequence of Rome`s numerical superiority, so that Rome could afford to take risks. Especially Fabius` campaign in North Africa, that lead to vast conquests he could not keep due to issues with his logistics support the second theory.
But nevertheless Rome had once again defeated his southern rival. And the facts, that Rome seized his first holding on African soil and appointed Manius Tiberius Brutus to be the first Governor of the new Region of Mauretania, were a sure sign for further hostilities.
(142) This is one of the current theories, that`s advocated by Taylor, Kennedy and other Anglo-American historians. The "European School", among them Vogondy, D`Anunzio and Willemsen, express the opinion, that Rome had no focus at all besides expansionism per se and was looking for targets of opportunity. The debate at the Lisbon-Conference in 2003 lead to no consensus.
(143) 180 Tons with a today`s market value of about 150 Million Euro.
(144) Today Cagliari
(145) In his book "The Punic Wars" Enrico D`Anunzio estimates the roman losses to be even about 70%, but there is no evidence for that. He also tried to verify the epidemic that struck both forces according to the few descriptions by Sempronius and comes to the conclusion, that it had been probably Typhoid fever.
(146) Tingis is today`s Tanger. Mogador is actually the Portuguese name for the Carthaginian trading colony of Migdol, that is now called Essaouira. The Massaesyli were still a largely nomadic nation. Although there must have been a central settlement, it couldn`t be verified so far.
(147) Not to be confused with the historian Publius Sempronius Sophus (4 - 72 AD), our best source for the 1st Century BC.
A. Reflections
Before taking a look at the events of the 2nd Punic War, it is interesting to focus on the general strategy of the Roman Republic. In 100 BC, it was the hegemonic power on the European continent with three possible choices for further expansions.
The Republic could have crossed its own artificial border along the Rhine and Danube to secure Germania or Dacia. Especially advancing to the northeast had been an alternative, since the Kingdom of Rhoxolani had pushed westwards along the coast of the Black Sea and reached the Danube Delta, thus sharing a common border with the Republic. In the east were the old and wealthy cities of Greece and Asia Minor, who had established a network of Alliances, that could threat even the large roman power. Finally to the south was Carthage, despite the continuing decline during the last decades still a major power and trading center in the western Mediterranean, that controlled the African shores as well as Corsica and Sardinia.
We may assume, that there have been major debates about the direction of further conquests, but as it seems, neither faction in the Senate could gain an advantage to enforce and maintain its agenda, so the main area of Rome`s military operations switched from the west to the east and back(142).
Another interesting fact is, that Rome didn`t try to establish a valid casus belli in this case. In 97 BC, an envoy travelled to Carthage to offer the Carthaginian Senate to buy Corsica and Sardinia for the exceptional sum of 5.000 attic Talents of Silver(143). It is disputed, if this offer was serious. Some authors point out, that Rome had to expect, that Carthage would deny it, so it could make an issue of Carthage`s lack of cooperation. But most historians tend to believe, that Rome indeed tried to come to an agreement, since the offered price was appropriate.
Whatever Rome`s intentions were, the Carthaginian Senate denied its offer and Rome declared war in early 96 BC.
B. Corsica and Sardinia
The XIII. Legion was delegated to seize these two islands. By April 96 BC, Corsica was conquered and the Legion was transferred to Sardinia. The following siege, that lasted for almost nine months, was of little interest beside the fact, that the whole island was struck by an epidemic plague, that decimated both besieger as besieged. When Caralis(144) opened its gates in late 96 BC, the XIII. Legion had probably lost 50% of its strength(145).
The most important events around Sardinia were the naval operations of both parties. Although the Carthaginian fleet was outnumbered from the start, its commander skillfully maneuvered his vessels through the Tyrrhenian Sea, sinking a few roman ships. But finally Rome gathered his fleets and Decius Tiberius Brutus, one of the few roman naval commanders known by name, managed to engage the Carthaginian fleet in the battle of Cap Pintonus.
Sempronius describes the scene, when the Carthaginian commander was stuck in an unfavorable position with the Sardinian coastline in his back and the roman fleet to the front. According to Sempronius, the roman fleet consisted of 180 Triremes, while their opponents had about half the amount. In an early stage of the battle, Decius Tiberius could break up the enemy formation on their left flank and then rolled up the whole Carthaginian line. Most ships were sunk or stranded when trying to escape. With this victory, the Carthaginian fleet ceased to exist and Rome was the undisputed ruler of the sea.
C. Iberia and North Africa
In the west, the Carthaginian commander Bomilcar took the initiative and crossed the Strait of Gibraltar, although he had no fleet at his disposal. His opponent was Manius Tiberius Brutus, long-term Governor of Baetica and skilled tactician.
Tiberius had two Legions and about 50 ships under his command. When he received message, that Carthage was gathering troops in northern Africa, he let his fleet leave the harbor and sail to the east to delude Bomilcar, who took the bait. In spring 96 BC, his forces landed near today`s Algeciras and marched towards Gadira. Now Tiberius let the trap snap shut. His fleet returned and cut Bomilcar`s line of retreat, while simultaneously Tiberius` second Legion arrived. In a fierce, but desperate battle, Bomilcar`s army was destroyed and Carthage`s holdings in North Africa exposed.
Tiberius immediately dispatched Marcus Fabius with the IX. Legion to cross the strait and seize Carthaginian territory. Within the next three months, Fabius conquered Tingis, Mogador and Massaesyli(146). In late 96 BC, Fabius learned about a large approaching Army from Carthage. Considering his overstretched supply lines he decided to retreat to Tinigis. He had to fight two battles against the fast advancing Carthaginians, but made it back to Tinigs in order.
Fig. 35: Carthage during the 2nd Punic War
D. End of the conflict
About the same time, when Fabius arrived in Tingis and the situation seemed to turn to Carthage`s favor, Rome conducted a daring operation. In early 95 BC, a large roman fleet arrived near Carthage and disembarked an Army consisting of the VI. and the remnants of the XIII. Legion. Carthage`s troops stationed near the capital were beaten and forced to retreat, while the roman commander Publius Sempronius Sophus(147) began to siege Carthage itself.
This event and the lost battle right in front of the city gates shocked the population, and according to Sempronius it came to panic and tumult within the city. The people were horrified and forced the Senate to immediately open negotiations. In late spring 95 BC, Rome and Carthage signed a peace treaty, that ceded Corsica and Tingis to the Roman Republic.
E. Results
Most authors come to the conclusion, that the 2nd Punic War was a display of total roman superiority. This was a result of the fact, that Rome obviously outnumbered Carthage by far. Secondly the War showed, that Rome`s commanders outclassed their Carthaginian opponents, as Tiberius` and Sempronius` operations prove.
It is still questionable, if these new and exceptional tactics were a result of an "evolution" of roman warfare due to the experience of two Centuries of expansionism, or if these operations were a simple consequence of Rome`s numerical superiority, so that Rome could afford to take risks. Especially Fabius` campaign in North Africa, that lead to vast conquests he could not keep due to issues with his logistics support the second theory.
But nevertheless Rome had once again defeated his southern rival. And the facts, that Rome seized his first holding on African soil and appointed Manius Tiberius Brutus to be the first Governor of the new Region of Mauretania, were a sure sign for further hostilities.
(142) This is one of the current theories, that`s advocated by Taylor, Kennedy and other Anglo-American historians. The "European School", among them Vogondy, D`Anunzio and Willemsen, express the opinion, that Rome had no focus at all besides expansionism per se and was looking for targets of opportunity. The debate at the Lisbon-Conference in 2003 lead to no consensus.
(143) 180 Tons with a today`s market value of about 150 Million Euro.
(144) Today Cagliari
(145) In his book "The Punic Wars" Enrico D`Anunzio estimates the roman losses to be even about 70%, but there is no evidence for that. He also tried to verify the epidemic that struck both forces according to the few descriptions by Sempronius and comes to the conclusion, that it had been probably Typhoid fever.
(146) Tingis is today`s Tanger. Mogador is actually the Portuguese name for the Carthaginian trading colony of Migdol, that is now called Essaouira. The Massaesyli were still a largely nomadic nation. Although there must have been a central settlement, it couldn`t be verified so far.
(147) Not to be confused with the historian Publius Sempronius Sophus (4 - 72 AD), our best source for the 1st Century BC.