Bride of my Constant Desire
'He is crazed with the spell of far Arabia,
They have stolen his wits away.'
Walter De La Mare, Arabia
Introduction
History is the story of man, and in the case of Arabia, the man in question depends largely on the side relating the history.
British historians speak of Samuel Hennell, Captain Atkins Hamerton, Lieutenant-Colonel Lewis Pelly, and Sir John Kirk. Soldiers, diplomats, explorers and adventurers – these men of the British Foreign Service would make their mark on the nations of the Peninsula
Arabian historians speak of Sa`id al Said, Thuwayni ibn Sa`id, Turki ibn Sa`id, and Faysal ibn Turki. These were the powerful Sultans of Oman and Muscat, the sons of the Busaidi dynasty, who would claim for their nation a ‘place in the sun’.
Perhaps it is best to say that a combination of these men – the drive of the British Foreign Service to safeguard the Empires interests, the desire of the Sultans to stand as equals with their neighbours – the Egyptians and the Ottomans – that would lead, in the wake of World War 1, to the creation of the modern Arabian state.
Prior to the 19th century, Oman had always been a centre for traders. It was strategically located on the trade route between India and Egypt, as well as home to a thriving incense trade for over two thousand years. In the past the kingdom had been conquered by the Portuguese and the Ottomans – both had been overthrown in time, and in the case of the Portuguese the men of Oman had used the advanced ships of the Portugeuse that they had captured to create an empire that stretched from East Africa to Baluchistan. It was an empire rich in wealth and manpower, albeit one based on slavery.
In 1741, a powerful Imam overthrew the last vestiges of Ottoman rule, and founded the Busaidi dynasty that survives to this day. Ahmad ibn Sa’id was the first Imam of Muscat and Oman – the supreme religious ruler of this rich land. His sons however, took not the title of Imam – with its connotations of religious leadership – but Sayyid, an honorific title held by any member of the royal family. Later, they would adopt the title of Sultan, implying purely coercive power. They thus relinquished all pretence of spiritual authority, although they patronised Muslim scholars and promoted Islamic scholarship. At the time, outside the Ottoman empire itself, Oman was the most sectarian of the Muslim powers of the time.
However, no history of the Peninsula can be complete without a discussion of religion – particularly that of Ibadhism and Wahabism, which would come to divide the Peninsula between them. Ibadhism, dominant in the South, Wahabism in the north. One moderate – almost liberal. The other conservative – fundamental. The divisions between these two sects of Islam coloured many of the events that occurred in the late 19th century.
Ibadhism was a form of Islam distinct from the Shi’ite and Sunni sects. Dominant in only one Muslim country, Oman, it was one of the earliest schools – having been founded in 751 AD – less than 50 years after the death of the prophet Mohammed.
Ibadhism was a conservative, yet moderate sect that emphasised compassion above all. Unlike Wahabism that espoused violence against all non-believers, Ibadhism merely espoused dissociation – an internal attitude of withholding friendship that did not, of itself, imply enmity or hostility. Indeed, Ibadhism decried the use of violence against fellow Muslims – ruling that the property of Muslims should not be taken as spoils and their women and children should not be killed or taken in captivity.
The British, who had long dealt with the Sultanate of Muscat and Oman, considered the Ibadhis to be the least fanatic and sectarian of all Muslims, who openly associated with people of all faiths and prayed together with Sunni Muslims. The Ibadhis reserved hostile actions for one type of person: the unjust ruler who refused to mend his ways or relinquish his power.
Wahabism could not be more different from Ibadhism. Fundamental and close-minded, it urged a return to traditional values based on a strict interpretation of the Qu’ran and Hadith. Founded in the late 18th century by Mohammed Ibn Abdul Wahhab, it regarded all other sects as heretical. It was an ideology that sought a return to ‘pure’ Islam, a system under which invoking any prophet, saint or angel in prayer, other than Allah alone – even Mohammed himself - was polytheism, punishable by death. It was a powerful, fast-growing system that allied itself with the rulers of Nejd, the cunning and powerful Al Saud dynasty.
By 1765, Wahabism had been established as the main religion of the powerful state of Nejd, to the north of Oman. In 1801 the Al Saud-led Wahabi armies had attacked and sacked the shrine of Husayn in Iraq. In 1802 they advanced on the Hedjaz, destroying monuments and grave markers in Mecca and medina, which they likened to Mohammeds destruction of pagan idols.
This advance had alarmed the ruler of Egypt, Muhammad Ali. In 1812 he sent his son Tursun to the Hedjaz, and later joined him. Together they rapidly defeated the Wahabi forces arrayed against them, forcing them back to Riyadh – which soon became the capital of the Al Saud family, from whence they planned the resurgence of Wahabism.
It was these destructive outbursts of the Wahabist religion that caused the British Empire to regard it warily. Whilst the divisions between the sects of Islam provided the British with the perfect ground to ply their ‘divide and conquer’ strategy, it could well be seen that sooner – or later – they would have to deal with the Wahabists.
It was against this background that Samuel Hennell, the British Resident of Bahrain, who had oversight on the so-called “Trucial States” decided to act in the interests of the Empire. The interests of Britain must be safeguarded – at all costs. And in Oman, he had the perfect weapon.