The Revenge of the Bear
Chapter 10 : Social Problems and Achievements
By the turn of the decade, the Russian Empire had a population of approximately one hundred and twenty three million souls, spread on the vast territory stretching from Poznan in the west to the frozen reaches of Alaska in the east, from the frozen tundra of northern Russia to the sun burnt deserts of Turkestan. This made Russia the third most populated country on earth, behind China and the British Empire (including its Indian possessions, of course).
Overview of major world countries by population
The continued growth of the Russian population was due both to mundane and natural reasons, as well as to the expansionist policy followed by Petersburg in regards to Russia’s neighbours. Territorial acquisitions changed the demographic balance of the Empire considerably. The addition of Poznan and Silesia saw an increase in the number of Poles dwelling in the Empire, whilst the incorporation of Bulgaria added a whole new titular nationality to the Empire, the Bulgarians.
But this was not all. The incorporation of new territories acquired in the aftermath of the Russo-Turkish War saw the Empire’s citizenship increased by approximately 1’400’000 Greeks and 830’000 Armenians, who were seen by Russians as fellow Orthodox brethren (true for Greeks, not entirely so for Armenians). The dramatic expulsions of Turks from the newly occupied territories saw the demographic balance changed in the Governorates of Kars and Constantinople, increasing the share of Greeks and Armenians until they were either a plurality or a majority.
New demographics of the governorates of Constantinople (left) and Kars (right)
The fate of Turkish and Kurdish populations was very symbolic of the way the Empire treated its non-Christian subjects. As has already been seen previously, only Christians were entitled to vote and be elected if they paid the Suffrage Tax. This meant that a number of governorates were not even represented in the State Duma, as it had no Christian population (South Caspian Governorate) or had a small population of Christians too poor to pay the Suffrage Tax (Baku Governorate). For the State Council, the representatives of these regions were pretty much appointed by local governors and their cabinets, themselves consisting of Russians appointed to their posts by the Imperial Senate (also sometimes known as the Emperor’s Cabinet of Ministers) for the simple reason that there was nobody to vote or get elected in these areas.
Out of a population of 123’000’000, approximately 104’000’000 were Christians and, thus, were entitled to vote in Imperial elections upon payment of the Suffrage Tax. This meant that approximately 19’000’000 Imperial subjects were deprived of all rights to vote, most of them Sunni muslims, but also including Jews, Shiites, Buddhists, Shamanists. The most active challengers of the system were Sunni Tatars, who caused regular riots in Kazan and even spearheaded open revolts in Turkestan.
Muslim regions of Russia were just as restive as twenty years ago
Of particular concern was the General-Governorate of Turkestan, where revolts against Russian rule were widespread. These uprisings were explained by a myriad of factors, ranging from adherence to millennia old feudal traditions that were consistently broken up by the Empire to simple raids and burglary outside of all political or moral ideals, but simply to acquire riches and slaves. The rugged terrain, harsh climate and remoteness made some corners of Turkestan a dangerous place indeed, into which Russian soldiers ventured only at regiment strength at least, and even then ambushes occurred on a regular basis.
There was, however, one major factor which ensured that rebels and brigands would always have willing supporters, and it was Kaufman’s complicated system of local administration. In effect, Kaufman’s troops controlled only major cities and strategic roads and railroads, as well as the Caspian coast. The khanates and emirates, even if deprived of their khans and emirs, continued to exist as the old ruling classes remained and were allowed by the Russians to carry out daily administration. Moreover, the Turkmens in the Transbaikal Oblast of Turkestan weren’t even governed at all, their chieftains having been warned to simply stay away from the railroad or face being shot at.
What did this mean on the ground? This meant that the native administrators began to oppress the lower classes with renewed vigour, blaming all and everything on the Russian occupants. Illiterate masses, driven to despair, then took up arms against what symbols of authority they could find, and what better and more visible symbol than a group of soldiers in their recognizable white and red uniforms?
Turkestani revolts were of particular concern to the Empire, even if
the situation was overall under control thanks to the Russian army on the ground
Kaufman’s inability to rein in the revolts and find a long lasting solution that would not needlessly cost the lives of Russian soldiers angered Alexander to the point that in 1880 he stripped Kaufman of his position as General-Governor of Turkestan and instead made him the General-Governor of the far more stable and calm Steppes and charged him to oversee the successful settlement of the territory by Russians.
Just as Kaufman left the fortress of Samarkand, the seat of the General-Governor and capital of Turkestan, Mikhail Skobelev arrived to take up the vacancy. The appointment of the White General to the position was a bit controversial, but the Emperor estimated that the Turkestani locals needed to learn some discipline. Russia could no longer allow her underbelly to be left to chaos and anarchy. And Skobelev was the perfect man for the job as he immediately set out to disband the feudal lordships and establish a firm, militarily structured authority under a strict military administration.
Skobelev’s Reforms appeased some, angered others, but the White General’s efforts began to give results
Under Skobelev’s reforms, the local Russian garrisons were reinforced and regiments became the governing authorities over given areas. The regimental commander became the executive and judicial authorities within their districts, with powers to enforce Imperial Law and arbitrate disputes between locals. However, the most important task of the Russian soldiers was to establish law and order, protect villages against brigands and rebels, assist the population as required. Skobelev’s aim was to make himself Enemy Number One of local landlords and elites, but gain the love of the local peasants and through this finally pacify Turkestan. The White General’s habit of being in the thickest of the fray during battle served him well in Turkestan, as one could always see him touring all over his domains, on train and on horseback, meeting tribal chiefs and village elders and inspecting his troops.
Russian peasants began to accumulate cash reserves,
a clear sign of a healthy Imperial economy
However, not everything was as dark and negative as some might think it was. Indeed, as Russia’s economy grew stronger, so did the welfare and prosperity of its population increase. It was not rare for Russian farmers to make enough profits to even accumulate monetary reserves, which everybody then spent as they deemed better. Some stocked the precious roubles up for when the “black day strikes”. Others improved their daily livelihoods by purchasing more goods, driving a local market boom which would fuel provincial economies. Aside from the remote corners of the Empire, suck as the Steppes or Turkestan, the population grew richer and happier.
Russia’s population was on the increase, and so was the general level of literacy
Another important social achievement was the ever increasing literacy rate amongst the Imperial population. But yet again, it depended on the regions. Propsperous areas around Moscow, Petersburg, Kiev and Warsaw had almost perfect literacy rates, whilst in Turkestan few could barely speak Russian, not to mention actually read the language! But the progress was clear and apparent, with literate masses offering a more stable population than illiterate pitchfork wielding mobs.
